Abstract
In a diverse collection of contributions covering various countries and themes, the main argument put forward in this edited volume is that gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) people face discrimination creating disadvantages in the labor market, education, policy development, and cultural and religious life. This book is unique and timely as it examines discrimination against GLB and its adverse impacts from many different angles. It not only contains a much needed synthesis of economic research on wage discrimination, but also provides insights on sexual orientation discrimination from sociological, psychological, political, law, and social work perspectives. In their preface, the editors argue that although there has been visible progress in recent years, in some parts of the world sexual minority rights have been challenged; furthermore, they underline the crucial role that quantitative and qualitative research can play in making sexual orientation discrimination visible and addressing it.
In their introduction, Badgett and Frank examine and discuss the global pay gap and provide two rationales for bringing together articles from diverse contexts in the volume: developing the themes and establishing links between educational, labor market, and social outcomes and the fact that the gay political movement creates pressure for change cutting across institutional arrangements. The chapter explains how country specific contexts, difficulties in sampling diverse countries, and different methodological approaches, which are often seen as challenges to researching sexual minorities, can also be seen as strengths. Another important insight is that discrimination “may well create the seeds of its own destruction” (p. 13), as it creates social movements for change.
The remainder of the book is divided in four parts. The first part, entitled “Wages and Jobs”, mainly takes an economic perspective on the labor market impact of belonging to a sexual minority. Chapters 2–9 provide an overview of current economic and related research on sexual orientation discrimination in the labor market. In chapter 2, “Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation: A Review of the Literature in Economics and Beyond”, M.V. Lee Badgett discusses several challenges in establishing and interpreting evidence. Measuring sexual orientation is not a straightforward issue; non‐disclosure of sexual orientation may bias results, and datasets sufficiently large for empirical analysis are scarce. This has resulted in researchers having to apply creative solutions to identify sexual orientation, such as assuming that unmarried same‐sex partners are gay, which creates difficulties when interpreting evidence of discrimination. Despite methodological difficulties, the available economic evidence has produced fairly consistent results in terms of lower wages for gay and bisexual men. In contrast, studies on lesbian and bisexual women found mixed results (sometimes even positive wage premiums) and seem to be more sensitive to the specific method used. In a context of imperfect measurement of sexual identity, disclosure, actual experience, and human capital investment, this should not be taken to necessarily imply that discrimination against non‐heterosexual women does not exist. Economists are urged to do more research on these issues, but the focus should not only be on better measurement techniques and more advanced earnings equations. Economic research should also devote attention to the question of why discrimination against sexual minorities exists in the first place.
G. Reza Arabsheibani, Alan Marin, and Jonathan Wadsworth present an empirical analysis of gay and lesbian pay and employment in different economic sectors in “Variations in Gay Pay in the USA and in the UK” (Chapter 3). The chapter establishes that wage differentials between gay men and heterosexual men and lesbian women and heterosexual women depend on age groups, education, regions, countries, and economic sectors. Esther D. Rothblum, Kimberly F. Balsam, Sondra E. Solomon, and Rhonda J. Factor apply a sibling methodology to compare income between GLB and heterosexuals in chapter 4, “Lesbian, Gay Male, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Siblings: Discrepancies in Income and Education in Three US Samples”. This is an innovative way to analyse different groups in small‐size convenience samples. Three separate studies found that GLB people have higher educational levels in comparison with their heterosexual siblings but that this is not reflected in their income, possibly due to discrimination. In Chapter 5, “Do Straight Men ‘Come Out’ at Work Too? The Heterosexual Male Marriage Premium and Discrimination Against Gay Men”, Christopher Carpenter explores the question of whether an employer preference for heterosexual workers contributes both to a wage premium for married men and a wage penalty for gay men. The analysis supported the idea that employers screen on the basis of marital status as larger wage bonuses are found in cities and occupations that carried more uncertainty about an unmarried man's sexual orientation. Despite several limitations to the study, the findings suggested that marital status is an important issue to consider when analyzing wage differentials between heterosexual and gay men. Jefferson Frank continues the analysis of the male marriage premium in chapter 6, “Is the Male Marriage Premium Evidence of Discrimination Against Gay Men?” In line with recent literature, it questioned the often cited productivity effects of being married, for example, as a result of the specific division of labor between married men and women. A unique dataset covering 800 UK university workers enabled an in depth analysis. The study finds significant marriage premiums, which seem to peak for men in their 40's and 50's; these results were consistent with the hypothesis that the male marriage premium is at least partly a reward for heterosexuality.
In chapter 7, “We Are Family: The Influence of Gay Family‐Friendly Policies on Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Employees,” Belle Rose Ragins and John M. Cornwell investigate what impacts same‐sex domestic partner benefits, a welcoming attitude towards same‐sex partners, and gay family friendliness have on GLB employees' work attitudes. A study among GLB employees found that these factors are crucial. Employees working for GLB friendly companies had greater organisational commitment and self‐esteem and were less likely to quit their jobs than GLB employees at unwelcoming organisations. This implies that organisations that welcome GLB can enjoy a competitive advantage in attracting, motivating, and retaining GLB employees. Some of these benefits may be linked to the finding that a welcoming attitude supports GLB employees in coming out at work, which has obvious productivity advantages: GLB employees that can disclose their identity have more favourable attitudes towards work and are more committed to their organisations than those that remain in the closet. Chapter 8, “Comparative Life Histories of Nurses Who Advocate for Lesbian Health in a Canadian Context: Sexual Orientation Discrimination as a Factor in Career and Workplace Dynamics” by Judith A. MacDonnell, analyzes the career history of 10 nurses advocating for lesbian health in Canada using a comparative life history methodology and a critical feminist approach, comparing sexual minority and heterosexual female nurses experiences of career and workplace discrimination. Sexual orientation was found to be a key factor in how nurses anticipate, interpret, and act in their careers. Another key finding was that personal and career costs were higher for nurses belonging to sexual minorities than for heterosexuals, despite the fact that both were working in lesbian health services. Matt Johnson ends the first part of the book with a “Gay Men's Work at an HIV/AIDS Research Center” (chapter 9). It is a study of gay male employees of an HIV/AIDS behavioural research center (recruiters) that sought to assess whether such work was consistent with traditional notions of “gay jobs” and to examine which men hold these jobs. The study found that the job of recruiting men to participate in the center's studies is similar to other gay occupations in terms of low recognition, irregular work and low pay, and perceived benefits of the work that outweigh negative aspects. These benefits included prestige and the belief that work efforts contribute to a sense of community wide solidarity.
The second part of the book, “Discrimination Across Institutional Contexts,” examines the experiences of sexual minorities in Jamaica, Singapore, and two regions in Switzerland. Chapter 10, “Gendered Experiences of Sexuality‐Based Discrimination in Jamaica: Results From an Exploratory Study” by Ruth White and Don Gerke reports on sexuality based oppression experienced by Jamaican gays and lesbians. The study addressed how stigma and discrimination is perpetrated against sexual minorities, how this impacts public health and social welfare, and what impact class and gender differences have on these processes. The study found that homophobia in Jamaica is pervasive, in legal and political settings and in the media, making coming out a very risky process. Employment, education, and health and social services are very unwelcoming towards sexual minorities and the church supports a fundamentalist doctrine. Gender, class, and race seemed to have an important impact. Lesbians faced less stigma than gay men and belonging to a higher class protected people to some extent. Color did not appear to be an important factor in the reaction to homosexuality by society. Homophobia and repression had serious public health implications, as HIV/AIDS prevention and intervention efforts were difficult in such settings. In “‘We Know Who You Are. We'll Employ You.’ Non‐Discrimination and Singapore's Bohemian Dreams” (chapter 11) Meredith L. Weiss discusses the situation in Singapore. This small country is believed to have a “live‐and‐let‐live” attitude towards homosexuality and the chapter assessed what level of discrimination existed both in legal terms and on the ground. Homosexuality seemed to be tolerated but the legality of homosexual acts remained problematic and subtle discrimination persisted. The realities of the political and social systems in Singapore make it unlikely that real improvements for the sexual minorities can be achieved soon.
Chapter 12, “Discrimination Against Gays and Lesbians in the French Speaking Part of Switzerland” by Olivier Piedfort‐Marin, Anne‐Francoise Chevalley, and Pierre Cochand, presents the results of a study on verbal and physical violence against gays and lesbians and discrimination at school, work, university, and during professional training. A core finding of the study was that although actual verbal or physical violence based on sexual orientation had no significant relationship to being visible as homosexual, individuals who were not visible were more afraid of violence than those who were visible. Another interesting insight was that education in schools preceding university was the context in which sexual orientation discrimination was most pervasive, especially for young gay men. However, a number of important questions remained, especially in examining the links between visibility and violence. Thomas Bucher and Daniel Raess address coming out at work and its impacts on job satisfaction in chapter 13, “Discrimination, Coming Out, and Job Satisfaction of Gay Men in Switzerland: Results of a Survey”. Based on a survey of 581 gay men, the study found that discrimination against gay men is still widespread with 63% of the participants having had one or more experiences of discrimination at work and one third hiding their sexual orientation. Coming out at work, however, was associated with higher job satisfaction and less discrimination. The direction of causality could not be readily established, but it seemed likely that these concepts influenced each other.
Part 3 looks at discrimination in religion, education, and sport. In chapter 14, “Sexual Orientation Discrimination in Religious Communities”, Andrew K. T. Yip analyses the official Christian and Islamic stance on homosexuality and the diverse strategies that GLB Christians and Muslims have developed to manage and challenge discrimination as individuals and as a community. Across these two religions, discrimination was rationalized in moralistic terms as the preservation of a moral order. Such rationalization was opposed by GLB believers and discrimination affected them in negative ways, in terms of quality of life, psychological and spiritual well‐being and social integration. The positive message conveyed is that GLB believers are engaged in efforts to promote positive change, which generates positive dialogue within the Christian community. The democratisation of social life, fuelled by de‐traditionalization and individualization processes, is likely to minimize or even eradicate sexual orientation discrimination within religious communities in the future. Chapter 15, “Of Sacred Journeys: Spirituality and Religion in the Lives of Gay Men and Lesbian Women” by John Mabey, explores how gay men and lesbians create meaning out of spirituality and religion in their lives. Based on interviews, the study found that gays and lesbians have a hard time finding a spiritual home, which hampered meeting spiritual needs. A core problem was that even though religious communities are changing their views on GLB people, they were not reaching out to the gay and lesbian communities and failed to provide an atmosphere of acceptance. Another important theme arising from the interviews was gays and lesbians were reclaiming their rights to spiritual and religious life in different ways after being denied access into unwelcoming religious communities.
In chapter 16, “Campus Climate for Sexual Minorities”, Susan R. Rankin examines the climate on campus in higher education for sexual minorities. While previous research has established that campuses tend not to be very welcoming to GLBT people, most of it has not been empirical. The chapter addressed this issue by presenting the outcomes of a national study involving 14 institutions, which identified GLBT people by purposeful sampling and snowballing techniques. The results of the study were encouraging in some senses and disturbing in others. Positive outcomes were that only one third of GLBT students and one quarter of GLBT employees reported having experienced any form of harassment and that incidences of physical violence based on sexual orientation were very limited. It was less encouraging that students and employees reported an overall homophobic climate on campus and that hiding sexual identity was necessary to avoid discrimination and harassment. This might be related to the fact that many students and staff were unaware of institutional policies and actions on GLBT issues and the absence of GLBT content from the curriculum. Another important outcome was that the existence of GLBT resource and support centers and more attention for GLBT issues in curricula did not necessarily lead to more welcoming climates for GLBT students and staff, as they could only change things at the surface, while underlying heterosexist structures continued to exist. “‘It's the Sport That Counts’: On Homosexual Participation in Sports in the Netherlands” (chapter 17) by Jan Janssens and Agnes Elling presents the result of a quantitative study on gay sports in the Netherlands. Previous studies had shown that gender‐specific images and dominant cultures enable a structural impact of sexual preference on sports participation. The lack of empirical data on the extent to which gays and lesbians participate in sports was an impediment to promoting their emancipation in organized sports and the prime reason for the study. The core finding was that homosexuals do not participate less in sports in general, but that they did have their own distinct sports profile, choosing different sports and favouring commercial sports institutes over traditional sports clubs. There are however differences between lesbian women and gay men. Traditional sports clubs tended to be more inclusive for lesbians than for gays.
The final part of the book discusses policy issues in addressing sexual orientation discrimination. In chapter 18, “Beating up Queers: Discrimination, Violence, and Political Attitudes in Sexual Minority Communities”, H. N. Hirsch and Joe Rollins present the results of a study using information obtained from a survey among politically active members of the LGBTQ community. They found that discrimination against GLB people stimulated their involvement in politics, acting as a catalyst for liberationist views that challenge accepted norms. This provided clear evidence that positive change requires active involvement of the people concerned. Christopher Carpenter and Marieka Klawitter assessed the impact of local antidiscrimination policies and earnings in chapter 19, “Sexual Orientation‐Based Antidiscrimination Ordinances and the Earnings of Sexual Minority Individuals: Evidence From Local Initiatives in California”. They found no evidence for higher sexual minority earnings in cities and counties in California with antidiscrimination protection on the basis of sexual orientation. The study did, however, uncover positive wage effects for sexual minorities in public employment in geographic areas with antidiscrimination protection. In “Harassment, Retaliation and Relief: Can Laws Like the Proposed Employment Nondiscrimination Act Improve the Plight of Gay Workers?” (Chapter 20), Toni Lester identified enforcement challenges by analyzing complaints of discrimination submitted to the Massachusetts agency responsible for enforcing the state's non‐discrimination law. A key challenge was that people facing discrimination, after complaining, face retaliation resulting from seeking a legal remedy. Furthermore, the study found that non‐discrimination laws could be more effective when employer level policies and training in the case of noncompliance are mandated. Finally, Chapter 21, “Sexual Orientation Discrimination in Health Care and Social Service Policy: A Comparative Analysis of Canada, the UK and USA” by Nick J. Mule, concludes that in all countries considered, the fact that GLB people have different needs and concerns has not led to inclusive and comprehensive health care and social policies.
This book is the first to combine and integrate different strands of research on sexual orientation discrimination into a single volume. The contributions to the book not only present the latest available research on the issues, but also point out the policy implications at the organizational and political level in an accessible way. The book mainly takes an economic perspective, but the themes that are discussed have important implications for human resource development as well. Van Loo and Rocco (2009) quoted Becker (1971), who argued that the forces of competition will undermine the position of discriminatory employers who fail to hire productive workers from disliked minority groups. As this book provides a lot of evidence that such behavior is detrimental from a productivity and commitment point of view, it can be a driver of positive change in organisations. It can be a valuable tool for human resource development professionals who support organisations in making choices that eradicate sexual discrimination with the aim of fostering individual motivation, commitment, and effort.
Despite a number of important results, many questions and issues remain unanswered, which calls for innovative research in the coming years. Sustaining positive change and progress, however, requires more than analysis and providing evidence for discrimination alone. One of the key messages present throughout is that social change also comes from within the GLBT community itself.