In this paper, four sets of data, collected by four different research teams over a
period of 30 years are examined. Common item equating, which yielded correlations
from .94 to .97 across datasets, was employed to justify pooling the data for a new
analysis. Probabilistic conjoint measurement (Rasch analysis) was used to model the
results. The detailed analysis of these pooled data confirms results reported in
previous research about the ordered acquisition of moral stages and the relationship
between moral stages and age, education, and sex. New findings include: (1)
empirical evidence that transitions between “childhood” and
“adult” stages of development involve similar mechanisms; (2)
support for the notion of stages as qualitatively distinct modes of reasoning that
display properties consistent with a notion of structure
d’ensemble; and (3) evidence of a stage between Kohlberg’s
stages 3 and 4. Consistent with reports from earlier research, the relationship
between age and moral development is curvilinear. The relationship between
educational attainment and moral development is linear, suggesting that educational
environments have an equivalent impact across the course of development. Older males
have slightly higher scores than older females after age and education are taken
into account (accounting for 0.3% of the variance in moral ability).
References
1.
Adams, R.J.
, &
Khoo, S.-T.
(1993). Quest: The interactive test analysis system.
Victoria, Australia: Australian Council for
Educational Research Ltd.
2.
Alexander, C.N.
, &
Langer, E.J.
(Eds.) (1990). Higher stages of human development:
Perspectives on adult growth.
New York: Oxford University Press
.
3.
Andrich, D.
(1988). Rasch models for measurement.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage
.
4.
Andrich, D.
(1989). Distinctions between assumptions and requirements
in measurement in the social sciences. In
J.A. Keats
,
R. Taft
,
R.A. Heath
, &
S.H. Lovibond
(Eds.), Mathematical and theoretical systems (pp.
7–16).
North-Holland: Amsterdam
.
5.
Andrich, D.
, &
Styles, I.
(1994).
Psychometric evidence of intellectual growth spurts in early adolescence
. Journal of Ealy Adolescence, 14,
328–344
.
6.
Armon, C.
(1984). Ideals of the good life and moral judgment:
Ethical reasoning across the lifespan. In
M. Commons
,
F. Richards
, &
C. Armond
(Eds.), Beyond formal operations: Vol. 1. Late adolescent and adult
cognitive development.
New York: Praeger
.
7.
Armon, C.
(1993). Developmental conception s of good work: A
longitudinal study. In
J. Demick
&
P.M. Miller
(Eds.), Development in the workplace (pp.
21–37).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
8.
Armon, C.
, &
Dawson, T.L.
(1997).
Developmental trajectories in moral reasoning across the lifespan
. Journal of Moral Education, 26,
433–453
.
9.
Bartholomew, D.J.
, &
Knott, M.
(1999). Latent variable models and factor analysis.
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
.
10.
Bergan, J.R.
(1988). Latent variable techniques in measuring
development. In
R. Langeheine
&
J. Rost
(Eds.), Latent trait and latent class models (pp.
233–261).
New York: Plenum
.
11.
Bidell, T.R.
, &
Fischer, K.W.
(1992). Beyond the stage debate: Action, structure, and
variability in Piagetian theory and research. In
R.J. Sternberg
&
C.A. Berg
(Eds.), Intellectual development (pp.
100–140).
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
12.
Bond T.G.
(1994).
Piaget and measurement: II. Empirical validation of the Piagetian model
. Archives de Psychologie, 63,
155–185
.
13.
Bond, T.
, &
Bunting, E.
(1995).
Piaget and measurement: III. Reassessing the methode clinique
. Archives de Psychologie, 63,
231–255
.
14.
Colby, A
, &
Kohlberg L.
(1987a). The measurement of moral judgment: Vol. 1.
Theoretical foundations and research validation.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
15.
Colby, A.
, &
Kohlberg, L.
(1987b). The measurement of moral judgment: Vol. 2. Standard
issue scoring manual.
New York: Cambridge University Press
.
16.
Commons, M.
,
Armon, C.
,
Kohlberg, L.
,
Richards, F.A.
,
Grotzer, T.A.
, &
Sinnott, D.
(Eds.) (1989b). Adult development: Vol. 2. Models and methods
in the study of adolescent and adult thought.
New York: Praeger
.
17.
Commons, M.L.
,
Armon, C.Richards, F.A.
,
Schrader, D.E.
,
Farrell, E.W.
,
Tappan, M.B.
, &
Bauer, N.F.
(1989a). A multidomain study of adult
development. In
D. Sinnott
,
F.A. Richards
, &
C. Armon
(Eds.), Adult development: Vol. 1. Comparisons and applications of
developmental models (pp. 33–56).
New York: Praeger
.
18.
Commons, M.L.
,
Richards, F.A.
, with
Ruf, F.J.
,
Armstrong-Roche, M.
, &
Bretzius, S.
(1983). A general model of stage theory. In
M. Commons
,
F.A. Richards
, &
C. Armon
(Eds.), Beyond formal operations (pp.
120–140).
New York: Praeger
.
19.
Commons, M.L.
,
Trudeau, E.J.
,
Stein, S.A.
,
Richards, S.A.
, &
Krause, S.R.
(1998).
Hierarchical complexity of tasks show the existence of developmental stages
. Developmental Review, 8,
237–278
.
20.
Dawson, T.L. (1998). “A good education is
…” A life-span investigation of developmental and
conceptual features of evaluative reasoning about education. Doctoral
dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, CA.
21.
Dawson, T.L.
(2000).
Moral reasoning and evaluative reasoning about the good life
. Journal of Applied Measurement, 1,
346–371
.
22.
Demetriou, A.
,
Efklides, A.
,
Papadaki, M.
,
Papantoniou, G.
, &
Economou, A.
(1993).
Structure and development of causal-experimenta l thought: From early
adolescence to youth
. Developmental Psychology, 29,
480–497
.
23.
Draney, K.L. (1996). The polytomous Saltus model: A mixture model
approach to the diagnosis of developmental differences. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, CA.
24.
Epstein, H.T.
(1990).
Stages in human mental growth
. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82,
876–880
.
25.
Fischer, K.W.
, &
Bidell, T.R.
(1998). Dynamic development of psychological structures in
action and thought. In
W. Damon
&
R.M. Lerner
(Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human
development (5th ed., pp. 467–561).
New York: Wiley
.
26.
Fischer, K.W.
,
Hand, H.H.
, &
Russel, S.
(1984). The development of abstractions in adolescence and
adulthood. In
M.L. Commons
,
F.A. Richards
, &
C. Armon
(Eds.), Beyond formal operations: Late adolescent and adult cognitive
development (pp. 43–73).
New York: Praeger
.
27.
Fischer, K.W.
, &
Kennedy, B.
(1997). Tools for analyzing the many shapes of
development: The case of self-in-relationships in Korea. In
K.A. Renninger
&
E. Amsel
(Eds.), Process of development (pp.
117–152).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
.
28.
Fisher, W.P., Jr.
(1994). The Rasch debate: Validity and revolution in
educational measurement. In
M. Wilson
(Ed.), Objective measurement (pp.
36–72).
Norwood, NJ: Ablex
.
29.
Gibbs, J.C.
,
Basinger, K.S.
, &
Fuller, D.
(1992). Moral maturity: Measuring the development of
sociomoral reflection.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
30.
Gilligan, C.
(1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and
women’s development.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
.
31.
Hartelman, P.A.
,
van der Maas, H.L.J.
, &
Molenaar, P.C.M.
(1998).
Detecting and modeling transitions
. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16,
97–122
.
32.
Hautamäki, J.
(1989). The application of a Rasch model on Piagetian
measures of stages of thinking. In
P. Adley
(Ed.), Adolescent development and school science (pp.
342–349).
London: Falmer
.
33.
Kegan, R.
(1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human
development.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
.
34.
Kelderman, H.
(1986). Common item equating with the log-linear Rasch
model.
Twentye, The Netherlands: Department of
Education, University of Twente
.
Kingma, J.
, &
van den Boss, K.P.
(1988).
Unidimensional scales: New methods to analyze the sequences in concept development
. Genetic, Social, and General Psychological Monographs,
114,
477–508
.
37.
Kohlberg, L.
(1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-develpmenta l
approach to socialization. In
D. Goslin
(Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp.
347–480).
Chicago, IL: Rand McNally
.
38.
Kohlberg, L.
, &
Higgins, A.
(1984). Continuities and discontinuities in childhood and
adult development revisited—again. In
L. Kohlberg
(Ed.), The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of
moral stages (Vol. 2, pp. 426–497).
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
.
39.
Lourenco, O.
, &
Machado, A.
(1996).
In defence of Piaget’s theory: A reply to 10 common criticisms
. Psychological Review, 103,
143–164
.
40.
Markoulis, D.
(1989).
Postformal and postconventional reasoning in educationally advanced adults
. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 150,
427–439
.
41.
Masters, G.N.
(1982).
A Rasch model for partial credit scoring
. Psychometrika, 47,
149–174
.
42.
Masters, G.N.
(1994). Partial credit model. In
T. Husen
&
T.N. Postlethwaite
(Eds.), The international encyclopedia of education (pp.
4302–4307).
London: Pergamon
.
43.
Müller, U.
,
Sokol, B.
, &
Overton, W.O.
(1999).
Developmental sequences in class reasoning and proportional reasoning
. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 74,
69–106
.
44.
Nisan, M.
, &
Kohlberg, L.
(1982).
Universality and variation in moral judgment: A longitudinal and
cross-sectional study in Turkey
. Child Development, 53,
865–876
.
45.
Noelting, G.
,
Coude, G.
, &
Rousseau, J.P.
(1995, June).
Rasch analysis applied to multi-domain tasks
. Paper presented at the Twenty-Fifth Annual Symposium of the Jean
Piaget Society, Berkeley, CA.
46.
Nucci, L.
, &
Pascarella, E.T.
(1987). The influence of college on moral
development. In
J.C. Smart
(Ed.), Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol. 3,
pp. 271–326).
New York: Agathon Press
.
47.
Puka, B.
(1991). Toward the redevelopment of Kohlberg’s
theory: Preserving essential structure, removing controversial content.
In
W.M. Kurtines
&
J.L. Gewirtz
(Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development: Vol. 1. Theory
(pp. 373–393).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
.
48.
Rasch, G.
(1980). Probabilistic model for some intelligence and
attainment tests.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
49.
Selman, R.L.
(1980). The growth of interpersonal understanding:
Developmental and clinical analyses.
New York: Academic Press
.
50.
Sinnott, J.D.
, &
Cavanaugh, J.C.
(Eds.) (1991). Bridging paradigms: Positive development in
adulthood and cognitive aging.
New York: Praeger
.
51.
Smith, L.
(1993). Necessary knowledge: Piagetian perspectives on
constructivism.
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
.
52.
Snarey, J.R.
,
Reimer, J.
, &
Kohlberg, L.
(1985).
Development of social-moral reasoning among Kibbutz adolescents: A
longitudinal cross-cultural study
. Developmental Psychology, 21,
3–17
.
53.
Turiel, E.
, &
Davidson, P.
(1986). Heterogeneity, inconsistency, and asynchrony in
the development of cognitive structures. In
I. Levin
(Ed.), Stage and structure: Reopening the debate (pp.
106–143).
Norwood, NJ: Ablex
.
54.
Vyuck, R.
(1981). Critique and overview of Piaget’s genetic
epistemology, 1965–1980.
New York: Academic Press
.
55.
Walker, L.J.
(1982).
The sequentiality of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
. Child Development, 53,
1330–1336
.
56.
Walker, L.J.
(1984).
Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review
. Child Development, 55,
677–691
.
57.
Walker, L.J.
(1986).
Experiential and cognitive sources of moral development in adulthood
. Human Development, 29,
113–124
.
58.
Walker, L.J.
(1989).
A longitudinal study of moral reasoning
. Child Development, 60,
157–166
.
59.
Willett, J.B.
(1989).
Some results on reliability for the longitudinal measurement of change:
Implications for the design of studies of individual growth
. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 49,
587–602
.
60.
Wilson, M.
(1985). Measuring stages of growth. A
psychometric model of hierarchical development (Occasional paper 29).
Australian Council for Educational Research
.
61.
Wilson, M.
(1989).
Saltus: A psychometric model of discontinuity in cognitive development
. Psychological Bulletin, 105,
276–289
.
