The “Dual Masking Phenomenon”: A Critical Autoethnography of an Autistic Multiracial Latina Amid the Presence of White Autistic Researchers and Self-Advocates

Abstract

Background:

Autistic camouflage describes how autistic individuals assimilate allistic behavior for societal acceptance, while White mimicry demonstrates how non-White individuals assimilate White identities. These coping strategies, although different, are significant for non-White autistic individuals. Understanding them is crucial for mitigating racial and ethnic biases in autism research and clinical practice, emphasizing the importance of addressing ethnic and racial identity assimilation.

Methods:

I used a critical autoethnography aimed at advancing the decolonization of research and fostering equitable knowledge production. This approach entwined personal narratives with theoretical frameworks, transcending mere depiction. Validation of findings through peer debriefing was instrumental, while my positioning as a multiracial Latina expounded the intricate dimensions of racial identity and bias within the study’s context.

Results:

The findings revealed the “dual masking phenomenon” in non-White autistic individuals, encompassing both White mimicry and autistic camouflage. These complexities reveal challenges within racially influenced societal contexts, advocating for tailored support for non-White autistic individuals. Narratives unveiled prevalent tokenism, microaggressions, privilege, epistemicide, and meritocracy within predominantly White autistic environments, uncovering systemic barriers and the pressure to assimilate Whiteness to access opportunities. The study underscores the imperative to question neutrality and rectify disparities within the non-White autistic community.

Discussion:

The inadequacy of relying solely on autistic camouflage among non-White autistic individuals within racially influenced societal settings is highlighted. Instead, adopting traits associated with Whiteness seems to offer a more effective approach. The “dual masking phenomenon” reveals this systemic challenge—the pressure for assimilation faced by non-White autistic individuals, worsened by the prevailing systemic racism in predominantly White environments, as illustrated in the results. Recommendations include incorporating racial factors into research by racializing the experiences of White autistic individuals, educating health care professionals on racial dynamics, and fostering resilience and racial stamina, to address disparities within the non-White autistic community.

Community Brief

Why is this an important issue?

Non-White autistic individuals often do not receive the same support and recognition as White autistic people. Most research and advocacy in autism are led by White individuals, which can overlook or misrepresent the needs and experiences of non-White individuals. This study examines how being non-White affects autistic people and how they are treated differently, aiming to bring more attention and fairness to our experiences.

What was the purpose of this study?

To explore how being non-White affects the experiences of autistic individuals. The study aimed to find effective ways to address and reduce the differences in support and recognition between non-White and White autistic individuals.

What did the researcher do?

I studied my own experiences, as a multiracial Latina, and talked with other non-White activists and experts to understand how interacting with White autistic researchers and advocates in Europe affected me. I looked at how non-White autistic people might adjust their behavior to fit in and how White people might influence this.

What were the results of the study?

The study found that non-White autistic individuals often use two strategies to fit in: one is changing their behavior to blend in with non-autistic people, and the other is changing their identities to act like White people, which adds extra challenges for them.

It showed that having mostly White people in research and advocacy makes it harder for those with multiple marginalized identities to be recognized and supported.

It also highlighted that pretending race is neutral when discussing autism, a common approach in research, can be harmful to non-White autistic people.

What do these findings add to what was already known?

These findings help us understand more about the differences in diagnosing and supporting non-White autistic people. It also points out that it is difficult to recognize non-White autistic people who try to fit in with White norms, not just those who change their behavior to mask their autism.

What are potential weaknesses in the study?

One weakness of the study is that focusing on my personal experiences might seem self-centered. To address this, including other research methods and a diverse group of people could give a clearer and more complete picture of the “dual masking phenomenon.”

How will these findings help autistic adults now or in the future?

Make White autistic researchers and others aware of how race and ethnicity affect non-White autistic people.

Encourage including race and ethnicity details when talking about autistic people, which will help better understand our experiences.

Improve how we diagnose and support non-White autistic individuals by reducing racial and ethnic biases.

Create better support that takes into account the unique experiences of non-White autistic individuals.

Background

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)¹ explicitly acknowledges the influence of cultural nuances and social dynamics on the understanding of autism. In addition, it underscores the recognition that these multifaceted factors, in conjunction with socioeconomic variables, can notably affect the timing and accuracy of diagnosis. This recognition is supported by the prevailing tendency for non-White autistic children to receive diagnoses at a later stage or with less frequency compared with their White counterparts.^2–8

Extensive scholarly inquiry has deepened our understanding of the prominent racial and ethnic disparities, with particular emphasis on those prevailing within the Black and Latino communities. Contributing to these disparities are various factors, including lower socioeconomic status, disparities in health care infrastructure, widespread distrust in the health care system, linguistic barriers, intricate cultural nuances, and the pervasive influence of unconscious biases on health care providers’ decision-making processes.^9–16

Despite significant progress, achieving racial and ethnic equity in autism research and advocacy remains a formidable challenge. This dispute persists due to historical patterns of overrepresentation of White cisgender assigned male at birth autistic individuals as objects of scientific studies,^17,18 as well as the predominant leadership roles held by White individuals within both autistic and allistic communities in the global North, particularly in research and self-advocacy initiatives.^19,20

These entrenched dynamics often overlook demographic nuances and systemic oppressions, which can potentially compromise the validity and reliability of subsequent research outcomes. In addition, current literature frequently fails to address race and ethnicity when discussing White individuals, resulting in a tendency to center White autistic individuals as neutral or universal, acting through assumptions rather than positioned scientific endeavors,²¹ thereby marginalizing the diverse experiences of non-White autistic individuals.^20,22,23

The classification of autism within a medical framework may inadvertently reinforce this narrow perspective and impede a comprehensive understanding of the intricate interplay between social, cultural, and political factors. Paul Rabinow’s work^24,25 discusses this phenomenon by introducing the concept of “biosociality,” which explores the formation of social identities and communities based on shared medical labels and its associated biological classifications. This theoretical framework aligns with the emergence of the autistic community, which also gathers around shared experiences and identities shaped by the portrayal of autism as a medical condition, often pathologizing their behavior by using White allistic bodies as the standard model for humanity.

However, despite the extensive scrutiny of autism by health care practitioners, its classification lacks grounding in identifiable biological markers, instead depending on observable behavioral cues for diagnostic classification.¹ It is crucial to recognize that behavior, serving as a foundational element in an autism diagnosis, is not dictated solely by biological determinants but is significantly shaped by prevailing cultural norms and societal standards.^26,27 Autistic individuals do not undergo diagnosis through a singular clinical test, such as brain imaging or blood analysis,²⁸ but rather through a comprehensive assessment of behavioral traits and parents’ or caregivers’ descriptions of their child’s behavior.²⁹

Allistic-passing individuals, proficient in using behavioral strategies to assimilate allistic norms, often evade diagnostic detection or fail to recognize their own autism due to their diminished exhibition of stereotyped traits.^30–32 Termed autistic camouflage, this phenomenon has garnered significant attention, particularly in the context of White autistic women,^33–36 highlighting the role of patriarchy in shaping their socialization experiences. Furthermore, while the marginalization of women in autism research has been acknowledged, current discourse predominantly focuses on the intersection of autism, camouflage, and White womanhood, leaving other intersections unexplored.

As delineated by Alaghband-Rad et al.,³⁰ camouflage encompasses a diverse array of behaviors and strategies deployed by autistic individuals to obscure their autistic traits and mirror the behaviors commonly exhibited by their allistic counterparts. This practice serves to facilitate their assimilation into the neurotypical, ableist societal framework.

Miller et al.³¹ further expound on camouflage as a concept embraced within the autistic community, representing a conscious effort to suppress certain aspects to mitigate social stigma and conform to conventional norms. In addition, Pearson and Rose³² delve into the multifaceted nature of camouflage, highlighting its potential manifestation as either a conscious or unconscious suppression of innate autistic responses to adopt alternative behaviors. They underscore the adverse consequences associated with it, including delayed or overlooked diagnosis, mental health complications, burnout, and heightened risk of suicidality. Moreover, they assert that camouflage emerges as a response to the pervasive deficit narrative and social stigma surrounding autism.

While these three articles offer valuable insights into the phenomenon, a critical observation emerges. Each author predominantly discusses autistic individuals as a homogeneous group, failing to recognize the potential intersectionality of camouflage as a primary coping strategy used to navigate systemic ableism faced by White autistic individuals. This notable omission may arise from a limited perspective or lack of experience with the distinct challenges encountered by non-White autistic individuals.

The discourse surrounding assimilation, however, has been a long-standing subject of inquiry within non-White communities, Black literature, critical racial studies, and postcolonial studies,^37–43 predating discussions on autistic camouflage. Fanon⁴² addressed this theme many decades ago, yet the oversight regarding non-White autistic individuals is not as confounding as one might initially perceive.

As a psychiatrist, Fanon delves into the intricacies of identity construction imposed upon colonial subjects by colonial racism, thereby emphasizing the imperative to emancipate oneself from the repercussions of colonialism. Fanon, much like the insights offered by Miller et al.³¹ and Pearson and Rose³² and many other White researchers addressing autistic camouflage, scrutinizes the deliberate instillation of fear and a sense of inferiority in non-White bodies, thereby underscoring the necessity to confront and resist this oppression through pretense. However, instead of assuming a guise of neurotypicality, non-White individuals often adopt the semblance of Whiteness, the phenomenon of White mimicry.

Note that Whiteness encompasses not only physical attributes but also societal meanings and resulting material advantages associated with being categorized as White. This construct involves considerations of the privileges granted and their mechanisms based on racial categorization. Whiteness is founded on the premise that Whites are the norm or standard for humanity, while non-Whites are viewed as deviations from this norm,^38,44,45 akin to how allistics are considered the norm and autistics are seen as a deviation from it.¹ Moreover, White individuals often fail to recognize their own racial identity as Whiteness, just as allistic individuals do not acknowledge their typicality. The assumption of a White-normal reference point as universal²³ is imposed on everyone, non-White and atypical included.

It is essential to acknowledge that while both White mimicry and autistic camouflage entail processes of assimilation intertwined with societal constructs pertaining to Whiteness^44,45 and normativity,^22,26,27 they exhibit distinct underlying mechanisms. White mimicry revolves around the adoption of cultural markers associated with Whiteness, reflecting the learned “nature” of cultural identity. Conversely, autism is characterized by a complex interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences,¹ factors that are not subject to deliberate learning processes.

That said, White mimicry⁴² emerges as a predominant mitigation strategy for non-White individuals grappling with racist cultural paradigms. These individuals often navigate internal conflicts stemming from societal devaluation of non-Whiteness juxtaposed with their own melanin-rich complexions, phenotypes, and non-White ethnicities. As a coping mechanism, they may adopt a self-perception aligned with Whiteness. The resemblance of this strategy to that observed in White autistic individuals suggests intriguing parallels, although it is noteworthy that these two phenomena were not observed in conjunction.

Mimicry functions as a response to the imperative for assimilation, representing a nuanced form of colonial subjugation. White mimicry reconfigures one’s presence, providing a partial reflection of the colonizer’s presence within a non-White colonized body, thereby reshaping perspectives and meanings. In doing so, it serves as a mechanism to mitigate violence and bias, exerting influence across various dimensions of a non-White individual’s life, including speech, attire, hairstyle, religion, education, work, etiquette, intermarriages, cultural practices, and more.

This phenomenon often entails the abandonment or modification of one’s own identity to align with the norms and values of a White society. The convergence of these phenomena gives rise to what I term the “dual masking phenomenon,” revealing an intricate reality where non-White autistic individuals navigate the following two distinct coping mechanisms simultaneously: White mimicry⁴² and autistic camouflage.^30–32

In this scholarly contribution, leveraging my personal identity and experiences as an autistic multiracial Latina, I undertake a rigorous critical autoethnographic⁴⁶ inquiry to explore the phenomenon of imposed assimilation within the context of interactions with White autistic researchers and self-advocates. Through a meticulous examination of two distinct personal encounters, my objective is to reveal the intricate dynamics involved in navigating societal norms and expectations, while elucidating the profound implications of assimilation on individuals situated at the nexus of race, ethnicity, and autism, illustrating how positioning is crucial for addressing the interplay of factors such as race and ethnicity in autism research and self-advocacy.

Through the promotion of acknowledging racial identifiers instead of presuming neutrality, we can engender a more profound understanding of autistic identities. Moreover, the insights proffered possess the capacity to exert a substantial influence on the identification process of non-White autistic individuals by rectifying diagnostic disparities and mitigating racial and ethnic biases. This underscores the importance of acknowledging the “dual masking phenomenon” instead of solely adhering to a biosociality^24,25 framework that covertly reinforces the medical model.

Methods

I have opted to utilize critical autoethnography⁴⁶ as a methodological framework, situated within the intersecting fields of Critical Autism Studies, Critical Racial Studies, and Whiteness Studies. This interdisciplinary engagement seeks to contribute to the broader discourse on decolonizing research and fostering more equitable and inclusive knowledge production processes.

Through a critical examination of the intersections between race, autism, and colonial legacies, my article aims to interrogate prevailing narratives and amplify the voices of marginalized individuals within academic discourse. These voices, frequently dismissed, and relegated to the third person, evoking a parallel to the treatment of children,^47,48 are essential to understanding the complexities of lived experiences and advancing more inclusive and equitable perspectives.

In autoethnography, the lived social encounters are woven from the fabric of personal experience, a continual dialogue with thematic undercurrents. However, through the lens of critical inquiry, I interlace theoretical frameworks within my own narratives, elevating them beyond mere depiction.⁴⁶ In this endeavor, I strive not only to articulate but also to embody the nuanced scientific comprehension that has blossomed within me as an anthropologist, amid the rich complexity of my own existence. Here, I recognize my autistic Latin body as both the vessel through which my life is experienced and the crucible from which knowledge is forged.

That said, I reveal the impact of ethnic and racial disparities on my experiences across my professional engagements, self-advocacy endeavors, and educational pursuits. Through the lens of two nonfictional narratives, I explicate what I term as “the dual masking phenomenon”—the convergence of autistic camouflage and White mimicry. This exploration aims to elucidate the intersectionality of non-White identities and autism.

In delineating two consequential interactions underscored by systemic racism within the autistic community, I prioritize the anonymity of individuals involved, thereby safeguarding their privacy and confidentiality. While all members of this cohort were assigned female at birth, I abstain from divulging their gender identities, age, specific geographic locations, or the precise dates of the events.

Ensuring consistency and transparency

In documenting and analyzing my personal experiences, I used research diaries; beyond mere recording, these diaries serve as cathartic instruments,⁴⁹ fostering reflexivity, aiding in the formulation of responses and theoretical frameworks, and providing a repository for critical reflection. In addition, they facilitate the recognition of patterns within the field, enabling comprehensive documentation of research processes, analysis, and interpretation to ensure consistency in data collection.

The two interactions delineated in the Discussion section originate from entries in my journals since 2022, meticulously documenting the diverse challenges encountered in my engagements within the White autistic community. I systematically log these interactions, conscientiously considering key factors to observe intersectionality, including race, ethnicity, country of residence, skin color, immigration status, age, and gender. This systematic approach allows for the subsequent grouping of experiences among distinct demographic cohorts. Furthermore, I consistently assess two critical dimensions,⁵⁰ the circumstances under which observations were made and the role assumed by myself in these interactions, both of which are elaborated upon in the subsequent discussion.

After processing and organizing journal entries, I utilized triangulation to validate my findings through the establishment of epistemic partnerships.⁵¹ This entailed engaging in discussions on the topic of the “dual masking phenomenon” with Black autistic activists, Afro-Latin autistic individuals, and Latin anthropologists knowledgeable in Critical Racial Studies. Their collective affirmation substantiated my initial assertions, with no discrepancies or contradictions arising during our exchanges. Peer debriefing corroborated that my findings resonated with the experiences of non-White autistic individuals.

Positioning and bias

The elucidation of the intricate positioning²¹ inherent in the concept of a multiracial Latina is imperative. As an autistic Brazilian woman, akin to many of my Latin American counterparts, my racial identity embodies a complex interplay of predominantly White and Black ancestries, augmented by traces of South Asian and Indigenous heritage. Remarkably, I am the first individual in my familial lineage not to bear the surname of a slave master. Presently domiciled in Portugal, my identity diverges from the prevailing perception of Whiteness within European contexts, situating me as a non-White woman within this milieu.

I do not identify as an Afro-Latin woman, nor do I claim indigeneity. However, situating myself as a multiracial individual recognizes the complex legacy of colonialism, tracing back to my ancestors’ integration into colonial systems through interracial unions and instances of sexual coercion. Highlighting my lineage encompassing Black, South Asian, and Indigenous roots is not an attempt to assume representation or authority over these communities. Instead, it symbolizes a conscious rejection of continued assimilation, a rejection of the notion of an assumed neutral standpoint, as my existence is inherently embedded within specific historical and cultural contexts.

Nevertheless, as an individual who has light skin, I recognize that I possess the capacity to access advantages afforded by skin privilege in Portugal and Brazil,^37,52,53 underscoring my potential to perpetuate and uphold Whiteness even as a multiracial Latina. The tension depicted in my narrative arises from my refusal to engage in such perpetuation.

Results

To support the “dual masking phenomenon,” I present a synthesis of my fieldwork notes and reflective insights stemming from experiential engagement, with a reflexive stance in shaping the discourse of this article. In addition, my narrative is substantiated through an integration of scholarly discourse gleaned from published articles and books authored by scholars from Critical Racial Studies, contributing to a critical perspective to the evolving discourse within Critical Autism Studies. It is noteworthy that this field, predominantly comprising voices of White autistic and allistic individuals,^19,20 stands to benefit from the inclusion of non-White perspectives and nuanced insights, thereby enriching the academic dialogue.

“Brazilian women are prostitutes and hypersexualized”: Systemic racism in the autistic community

During an activity where I was invited to provide feedback, I encountered a late-diagnosed autistic White researcher, whom I shall refer to as Mary. Throughout our interactions, I detected an inexplicable and pronounced passive-aggressiveness. I attribute this dynamic to my inclusion in a meeting with two White autistic women and a White non-autistic woman. In this scenario, I felt like a token; they sought someone familiar with racial and ethnic backgrounds to help mitigate potential biases in their research. For those unfamiliar, tokenism involves making minimal and deceptive efforts to include members of underrepresented groups, creating an illusion of inclusivity.⁵⁴

During the meeting, Mary clearly delineated the engagement criteria, stating that participation was limited to individuals with an autism diagnosis and consistent specialized therapy. When I proposed that these criteria might unintentionally favor predominantly White autistic individuals, Mary seemed perturbed. Amid this disagreement, she asserted that all autistic individuals encounter similar challenges. I posed the question, “Do you see me as your equal?” to which she replied, “I am aware that Brazilian women face challenges here.” At that moment, I realized I was being perceived as inferior. My role was not to provide genuine feedback but to give the impression that the feedback was valuable.

In the aftermath, the frequency of microaggressions escalated rapidly. Unexpectedly, I received a text message from her inquiring: “What is a Tupiniquim invasion?” The term “Tupiniquim” conveys connotations of “something of the Indigenous” in contrast to attributes perceived as indicative of civilization. Subsequently, its usage has been expanded and solidified to signify an “uncivilized” Brazilian identity.⁵⁵

The term “Tupiniquim invasion” denotes the substantial presence of Brazilians in a specific area. It stems from the Indigenous people, Tupi, who inhabited the coast of Brazil during the colonial period, belonging to the larger Tupi-Guarani linguistic and cultural group—a lineage from which I descend. I expounded on this to her, cautioning against its usage. In response, she remarked, “It makes sense coming from the person who said it.” I pretended ignorance and allowed the topic to dissipate.

A few days later, she forwarded me a text she had edited. After reviewing it and offering suggestions for further adjustments, I requested minor changes. Surprisingly, she not only neglected to make the requested alterations but also returned the text to me in precisely the same form I had sent it, devoid of any revisions. She asserted that she had made revisions when, in fact, she had not. Despite her reluctance to engage in calls or meetings, she displayed no such hesitations when interacting with White autistic researchers. I initiated a discussion with her via messaging to explain my requests. Below is a portion of our exchanges, where my primary focus was on addressing racial and ethnic privilege, as well as delineating the distinction between an oppressed and a colonized body:

Mayne: An oppressed body differs from a colonized body.

Mary: Academics achieve success within local communities through extensive extractive research efforts, asserting their superiority. However, without adopting this superior stance, respect is not readily accorded, reflecting societal expectations. Additionally, there is an expectation to network or form alliances with individuals perceived as stronger.

Mayne: Allow me to illustrate with an example: asexuality. A highly camouflaged autistic Latina or Black autistic woman is never identified as asexual. Ethnic and racial identity take precedence over disability.

Mary: Indeed, Brazilian women are prostitutes and hypersexualized. However, these stereotypes lose their impact if the women are wealthy or, even better, belong to the elite.

It is important to note that she did not suggest that Latinas and Black women are frequently stereotyped as sexually provocative.^40,56,57 Rather, she specifically referred to the labeling of Brazilian women as prostitutes, which was not the central topic of our conversation. In addition, it is pertinent to mention that I am Brazilian, not affluent, and not from the elite class. Furthermore, she conveyed her viewpoint that, in her assessment, this issue primarily pertains to socioeconomic class while overlooking the racial and ethnic dimensions of the matter.

Mary and I both have the experience of being autistic and are actively engaged in autism research within the same geographical location. However, her Whiteness profoundly shapes my experience of oppression. This underscores the complex dynamics of race within the autistic community, illustrating that despite sharing a neurotype, a White autistic individual still possesses racial and ethnic privilege.

Furthermore, they may perpetuate it even at the expense of disregarding the experiences of non-White autistic individuals, by White-centering narratives,⁵⁸ utilizing a self-preservation technique known as the narcissistic pact of Whiteness,⁴⁵ perpetuating systemic racism by disregarding the experiences of non-White individuals to maintain their advantages within society.

“It works much better now!”: Epistemicide in autism-led research

In January 2022, I initiated the development of a text focusing on the pathologization of autism through discourse analysis, aiming to catalyze an epistemic shift by addressing systemic neuroepistemicide,^59,60 utilizing the narratives of autistic individuals concerning their own experiences. It is crucial to distinguish between discourse and discussion. While discussion involves deliberation on existing ideas, discourse encompasses the examination of who has been speaking,⁶¹ with the global North White psychiatrists dominating the narrative since 1938.^17,18 The structural framework of the text was submitted to the White autistic editors, who also served as reviewers in an open review process, in February 2022. They provided feedback, and the article was subsequently accepted for publication.

Following extensive efforts on the agreed-upon text, as well as their repeated requests to substitute terms used by the global South researchers with White-centered ones, I received an email stating: “referencing of deficit research must be kept to a minimum (as it gets boring and may overshadow the ‘good and new stuff’). So, with this said, I am happy to cut it down for you.” It is worth noting that the text addressing pathologization had been approved a year before this email.

Subsequently, they proceeded to edit the article, offering a suggestion that entailed the removal of the entire theoretical framework and any references to colonization and epistemicide within the global South autistic community, as opposed to neuroepistemicide within the European autistic community. This was accompanied by the comment: “I believe the crucial aspect here lies in the ‘usability’ of theories originating primarily from the global North/White autistic spheres—what implications does it hold for an autistic researcher to find themselves ‘somewhat excluded’ from the conversations and communities dominated by global North/White autistic perspectives? For instance, while I rely on my European networks, establishing my presence within them has been an ongoing endeavor, and there are still numerous contexts where I remain unrecognized.”

I submitted a comprehensive email, delving deeply into the matter, particularly following their recommendation to substitute “the bad stuff” with references from their own work, elucidating the circumstances further. However, the response comprised merely three lines that failed to address any of the raised concerns, appearing as if my email had not been received or considered. Instead, it simply asserted: “It works much better now!”

It is imperative to acknowledge that the challenges encountered in this situation are not rooted in issues of merit or recognition, nor do they relate to efforts aimed at enhancing the text’s quality or highlighting positive aspects while avoiding deficit-based approaches. The overshadowing of “the good stuff” by my emphasis on “the deficit story”—a narrative that the White autistic editors downplayed due to its inclination toward pathologization as depressive themes—illustrates a broader challenge within the autistic community. This challenge pertains to its covert adherence to biosociality,^24,25 or the medical model, rather than advocating for a decolonial turn.⁶²

It is essential to recall that the neurodiversity paradigm, as outlined by Walker,⁶³ is grounded in three fundamental principles. The third states that neurodiversity encompasses complex social and political power dynamics, including issues of inequality, privilege, and oppression, while simultaneously serving as a catalyst for fostering diversity.

Neurodiversity emerges as a metaphor for the pervasive oppression experienced by individuals with diverse behavioral practices. Discussing pathologization^26,27 does not equate to using deficit-based language. Could Black individuals address their oppression without acknowledging racism? Similarly, could women confront their oppression without acknowledging patriarchy? Addressing patriarchy or racism is not an avoidance of “the good stuff”; rather, it serves as a catalyst for fostering a new understanding.

Rather, in this case, the underlying issue pertains to epistemicide,⁶⁴ the prioritization of White perspectives, and systemic racism within the White autistic academic environment. At the heart of the matter lies the question of how to address substantive contributions or “the good stuff” within the text when one’s voice is systematically marginalized or silenced.^47,65 While the White autistic editors did not express concerns regarding my autism, they evidently struggled to accommodate my identity as a multiracial Latina. Their insistence on assimilating me into a White-centric framework for publication underscores the broader challenges of representation and inclusion within White autistic academic circles.

Meritocracy

In addressing the perspectives of both White autistic researchers and self-advocates, who have articulated sentiments such as “I rely on my European networks, establishing my presence within them has been an ongoing endeavor, and there are still numerous contexts where I remain unrecognized” or “these stereotypes lose their impact if the women are wealthy or, even better, belong to the elite,” it becomes apparent that meritocracy serves as a mechanism for justifying inequalities.

The White autistic researchers perceive themselves as morally upright, leveraging significant disparities in educational funding to ensure that her offspring receive commensurate education—a form of self-preservation that perpetuates intergenerational privileges, thereby enhancing employment prospects and wage potential for their cohort.^45,65

However, this dynamic proves detrimental not only to socioeconomically disadvantaged autistic individuals but particularly to non-White autistic individuals. They are compelled to adopt White identities to vie for opportunities within academia and self-advocacy, forsaking their own non-White identities in the process.^45,66

Epistemicide

The marginalization of non-White autistic voices functions as a strategic component within the systemic framework of racism. Epistemicide⁶⁴ is evidenced as a racial disparity deeply embedded within the educational realm, its roots entangled with historical and institutional legacies, notably the normalization of slavery within societal constructs. Similarly, the notable underrepresentation of non-White autistic researchers or non-White self-advocates, juxtaposed with their White counterparts, often assumes an intrinsic or “natural” guise. This inequity is meticulously fashioned to fortify hierarchical social hierarchies upheld by systemic racism, thereby perpetuating notions of the inferiority of non-White autistic individuals and their descendants.^65,67

Such ideologies are echoed in the assertion that “academics achieve success within local communities through extensive research efforts, asserting their superiority. However, without adopting this superior stance, respect is not readily accorded, reflecting societal expectations.” Within this context, “respect” aligns synonymously with adherence to norms associated with Whiteness,⁴⁴ as the concept of superiority inherently implies the existence of inferiority.

This phenomenon signifies the negation of our inherent presuppositions, thereby depriving us, along with other non-White autistic individuals, of alternative forms of knowledge.^47,65 This dynamic is succinctly articulated in the comment: “I believe the crucial aspect here lies in the ‘usability’ of theories originating primarily from the global North/White autistic spheres,” a sentiment that pertains to the concept of White-centering⁵⁸ and marginalization, or the hierarchical positioning of knowledge.⁴⁷

These dynamics underscore the systemic challenges faced by non-White autistic individuals in academic and advocacy spheres, often feeling compelled to adopt White identities for opportunity access. This observation highlights the limitations of solely relying on autistic camouflage to address bias and violence, emphasizing the critical need to examine notions of neutrality perpetuating disparities within the non-White autistic community.

Discussion

The concealment of my autism is not my primary concern, nor does it afford me protection within a society marked by systemic racism. Consequently, camouflage is not an effective strategy for navigating the perils of discrimination, bias, microaggressions, and the erosion of my emotional well-being within or outside my own community in Europe. Instead, mimicking Whiteness proves to be more efficacious in mitigating oppression, provided I can maintain discourse aligned with Whiteness and accept the pressure to assimilate identity. To understand how this phenomenon operates and the dynamics presented in the Results section, it is necessary to delineate the distinction between a colonized body and an oppressed body.

Oppressed bodies may encounter systemic violence based on factors such as disability, age, sexuality, gender, or class, yet they share identity with the oppressors, such as language, culture, dress code, and habits. Conversely, a colonized body not only experiences violence due to disability, age, sexuality, gender, or class but also faces oppression by another racial group based on identity factors, such as language, culture, dress code, and habits. In addition, colonized bodies are compelled to assimilate to the identity of the oppressors as a means of alleviating the oppression they face.⁶⁸

Autistic bodies share similarities with colonized bodies; we not only face oppression due to disability, age, sexuality, gender, or class but also encounter pressure to assimilate behavior imposed on us by a different neurotype. This pressure is exemplified by approaches such as applied behavior analysis and the mitigation strategy of autistic camouflage.^30–32 However, unlike non-White autistic colonized bodies, White autistic oppressed bodies do not experience the same pressure to assimilate identity, as they share the language, culture, dress code, and habits of their own ethnic and racial group.

For individuals like myself, who are non-White and autistic, adopting strategies of assimilation, concealment, and repression of genuine identity to navigate away from ostracism, social exclusion, shaming, violence, bullying, and various other forms of adversity, reliance on autistic camouflage may prove insufficient. This inadequacy stems, in part, from the fact that solely adhering to camouflage tactics predominantly aligns with the experiences of White autistic individuals.

I recognize that merely concealing my autism proves inadequate, I am also subjected to expectations of conforming to Whiteness, idolizing White autistic individuals, assuming a stance of intellectual subordination, and acquiescing to their instructional authority.⁴⁷ Regrettably, my value is restricted to that of a tokenized entity.⁵⁴ While I am granted the liberty to assimilate, genuine existence is denied to me.³⁸ Despite being both colonized and autistic, my multicultural identity takes precedence. Irrespective of my efforts to feign normalcy, they inevitably fall short. The disarray of my emotional well-being stems not solely from the camouflage of my autism; predominantly, it is the emulation of Whiteness that undermines it.⁴²

It is not unfounded to consider that other non-White autistic individuals, who confront disparities in access to diagnosis, education, and support, may also experience these challenges more profoundly. This intensified experience can be attributed not only to their concealment of autistic traits but also to the concealment of their non-White identities. They undergo the “dual masking phenomenon,” two distinct dynamics of subjugation associated with a colonized body, compelled to assimilate the identity of their oppressors to alleviate oppression. Simultaneously, they navigate the assimilation of behaviors as autistic individuals, like autistic camouflage.

To further illustrate, there was an instance when my White autistic friend and I had an important meeting regarding our advocacy efforts. She was at my house, and we both were low on energy due to previous commitments. Despite this, I took the time to shower, apply makeup, and dress in “appropriate attire” for the meeting. She then told me that I did not need to go through all that effort. I replied, “I am a Brazilian woman.” I anticipated that appearing in casual attire could lead to me being looked down upon or even denied entry to the building. Professional environments often reflect White cultural norms, and fitting in frequently involves aligning with those standards—a consideration my friend did not have to face.

Revealing this complex dynamic may open new avenues for addressing disparities within non-White autistic communities and inspire fresh directions for research. In addition, it could lead to a range of practice recommendations. Some of these are outlined in the next section, aimed at mitigating bias within the non-White autistic community and offering new educational opportunities for both White and non-White autistic researchers, self-advocates, and allistic White and non-White health care professionals.

Recommendations

The revelation of the “dual masking phenomenon” introduces a layer of intersectionality into the discourse within Critical Autism Studies, prompting scholars from diverse disciplines to explore this complex subject matter more deeply. However, to adequately address intersectionality, it is necessary to foster what is referred to as racial stamina. This involves the ability to attentively listen to the perspectives of non-White individuals without yielding to defensiveness and to recognize that any disregard, marginalization, or tokenization⁵⁴ may not be deliberate but nonetheless holds significant consequences.⁴⁴ It is crucial that we prioritize comprehending the implications of our actions.

Considering these, the following recommendations are proposed:

For researchers

First and foremost, researchers must consciously integrate racial and ethnic considerations into their research endeavors. Presently, the term “autistic people” predominantly signifies White autistics, thus overshadowing the experiences of non-White autistic individuals. By incorporating race into their samples, researchers acknowledge the disproportionate impact of neglecting racial factors, thereby averting the erasure of the intricate interplay between autism, race, and ethnicity.

Questionnaires should include prompts enabling autistic participants to self-identify their race, ethnicity, and immigration status. Given the nuanced variations in ethnic and racial backgrounds influenced by geographic location, this inclusivity is indispensable for capturing the diverse experiences within the autistic community.

In addressing the “dual masking phenomenon,” White researchers interested in the subject should adopt critical case sampling methodologies into their studies.⁶⁹ This necessitates the selection of informed informants rather than merely responsive respondents, emphasizing purposeful selection over random selection. Notably, not all non-White individuals possess a comprehensive understanding of racial dynamics, thus underscoring the importance of collaboration with non-White researchers versed in Critical Racial Studies and Postcolonial Studies to provide guidance and insight.

Furthermore, non-White autistic individuals educated in Critical Racial Studies and Postcolonial Studies should participate in reviewing and testing research tools before their application with participants, offering feedback for potential modifications. Preferably, multiple non-White autistics and allistic individuals should be engaged to prevent tokenism.⁵⁴

For journals

Academic journals should incorporate guidelines for authors, stipulating the necessity of explicitly addressing the potential mitigation of racial and ethnic bias within studies. Authors should be advised to incorporate racial considerations into their research, even more if the study exclusively focuses on White autistic individuals. Racialization entails overtly acknowledging race and ethnicity within the body of the work.

For health professionals

Health professionals must receive thorough education on racial and ethnic considerations, including a deep understanding of phenomena like the “dual masking phenomenon.” It is crucial to recognize that autistic camouflage may not always be the predominant strategy for mitigating bias. Therefore, when interacting with non-White individuals seeking assessment, support, or diagnosed non-White autistic individuals, professionals must consider the intricate dynamics of identity assimilation. Moreover, immigration status can significantly influence ethnic and racial backgrounds, as well as perceptions of the body, underscoring the importance of nuanced considerations in clinical practice.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the assistance of Ewellim Keit Ramos, a Black activist and social worker in São Paulo, Brazil, for reviewing the language to ensure cultural sensitivity. In addition, the author wishes to thank Kátia Moraes, a journalist and Black activist in São Paulo, Brazil, for the insightful exchanges on “the dual masking phenomenon.” She would also like to thank all the activists and scholars who generously donated their time and energy to peer debrief her findings.

Authorship Confirmation Statement

The author, M.S.B., confirms that she is the sole contributor to this work and has approved it for publication. The article has been submitted solely to Autism in Adulthood.

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

Funding Information

The funding for this research was provided by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, grant 2021.04533.BD.

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