Exploring the Connection Between Organizational Justice and Life Satisfaction Among Chinese Police Officers (A Research Note)

Abstract

Published research on the predictors of police officer life satisfaction in terms of workplace variables is important but limited; research concerning police officers in China (despite the large number of officers employed there) is even more limited. This study tests the hypotheses that perceptions of procedural and distributive justice would be related to the life satisfaction of Chinese police officers in three major Chinese areas: southern, central, and western China. Both procedural justice and distributive justice were significantly associated with higher life satisfaction. These results indicate that enhancing police life satisfaction likely involves enhancing procedural and/or distributive justice.

Keywords

police organizational justice distributive justice procedural justice life satisfaction China

Introduction

Satisfaction with life is important, including those who work as police officers (Erdogan et al., 2012; J. Liu et al., 2022). Higher satisfaction with life has been reported to result in greater open-mindedness, increased engagement in prosocial behaviors, improved well-being, higher self-esteem, and improved social interactions (Erdogan et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2021; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Donovan and Halpern (2002) noted that “when people are happier, they tend to be more open-minded and creative in their thinking. In contrast, people who are unhappy, stressed, or dissatisfied tend to exhibit ‘tunnel vision’ and rigid thinking” (p. 32). Higher levels of life satisfaction have also been observed to result in better physical health, improved mental health, decreased absences from work, lower turnover intent, reduced voluntary turnover, lower early retirement, and higher life expectancy (Chida & Steptoe, 2008; Donovan & Halpern, 2002; Erdogan et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2021; Lambert et al., 2005; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; von Bonsdorff et al., 2009). Moreover, Jones (2006) reported that satisfaction with life was a stronger predictor of job performance than job satisfaction.

Enhancing officers’ life satisfaction should benefit not only the officers themselves, but also the police agency and the community they serve. Further, efforts to raise the level of life satisfaction of officers should be made simply because it is the right thing to do (Lambert et al., 2005). Erdogan et al. (2012) pointed out that “life satisfaction is an important outcome to consider alongside other key management variables such as job attitudes and behaviors” (p. 33). In addition, given that life satisfaction is related to crucial outcomes, comprehensive research should treat it as an essential factor in organizational studies. Surprisingly, there has been limited published research on the predictors of life satisfaction for police officers, especially in terms of the workplace variables. Work is a major aspect of police officers’ lives (Frank et al., 2022). While some research has examined the relationship between certain workplace variables and officer life satisfaction, many other workplace factors remain to be explored. Organizational justice is one largely unexplored workplace variable in terms of its connection with officer life satisfaction.

Organizational justice refers to the view that an organization treats its employees in a fair and just manner (Colquitt et al., 2001; Lambert et al., 2022). There are different types of organizational justice, with distributive justice and procedural justice being two major ones (Greenberg, 1990; Lambert et al., 2022). Distributive justice means that employees perceive that they receive fair outcomes in the organization, and procedural justice focuses on the fairness of the procedures used to reach those outcomes (Colquitt et al., 2001; G. Wu & Liu, 2023).

Just as citizens expect police officers to treat the public fairly, police officers also expect their employing agency to treat them fairly (Sun et al., 2021, 2022; Wolfe & Piquero, 2011). A small body of studies has examined how distributive and procedural justice are linked to salient officer outcomes, such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement, and misconduct (Crow et al., 2012; Farmer et al., 2003; Qureshi et al., 2017, 2020; Sun et al., 2016, 2022; Wolfe & Piquero, 2011). While this research has contributed to the literature, there are still other important unexamined outcomes, such as life satisfaction. The preliminary current study examined how perceptions of distributive and procedural justice are directly associated with life satisfaction among police officers working in China. Officers are an expensive and valuable resource for police organizations, and improving views on organizational justice to enhance life satisfaction could be a viable way to invest in officers; therefore, this preliminary study was undertaken to examine the direct association of perceptions of distributive and procedural justice with the satisfaction of life among police officers in China, a major nation in the world.

Brief Literature Review

Organizational Justice

Justice is a major concept for human beings, with fairness at its heart (Qureshi et al., 2020). Fairness is a salient part of justice systems. As noted by Johnson (2004), “people care as much (or more) about the justice of government processes as they do about the outcomes of those processes. As a result, citizens are equally concerned with how they are treated by the criminal justice system as they are with the outcomes of the criminal justice process” (p. 496). Police are expected to operate in a fair manner and treat citizens fairly (Blader & Tyler, 2003; Qureshi et al., 2017). As Tyler (2006) noted, citizens are more likely to adhere to the law when they see the justice system as fair and just. In the literature, views on being treated fairly by an employing organization are referred to as organizational justice (Greenberg, 1990; Wolfe & Lawson, 2020). Organizational justice theory indicates that employees judge organizational fairness based on how the organization treats them and other employees (Colquitt et al., 2001; Qureshi et al., 2020).

Organizational justice can be broken down into dimensions, with three different schools differing on the number of dimensions (Colquitt, 2001; Lambert et al., 2020). One school holds that the two major dimensions of organizational justice are distributive and procedural justice (Greenberg, 1990; Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023). Distributive justice is the perception that organizational outcomes (e.g., assignments, benefits, discipline, evaluations, pay, and promotions) are fair for employees (Greenberg, 1990; Qureshi et al., 2020). Distributive justice is embedded in the concept of equity, rather than equality, and originates from equity theory (Adams, 1963; Greenberg, 1990). Under equity theory, employees view their outcomes not only based on their own inputs but also by comparing the fairness of their outcomes relative to the inputs of their fellow employees (Colquitt, 2001; Lambert et al., 2022).

Unlike distributive justice, which concerns views on the fairness of outcomes, procedural justice deals with the fairness of procedures and processes used to achieve those outcomes (Colquitt & Greenberg, 2005; Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023). Distributive justice represents perceptions of the fairness of the ends (outcomes), while procedural justice represents views on the fairness of the means used to arrive at those outcomes (Lambert, 2003). Landy et al. (1980) reported that the perceived fairness of employee evaluation procedures was important to workers regardless of whether the evaluations were positive or negative. Outcomes may be viewed as fair, but the procedures used can be perceived as unfair (i.e., I am paid well for my job in a poorly run startup); alternatively, procedures can be viewed as fair but the outcomes may be seen as unfair (e.g., I am paid poorly considering my job duties, by an underfunded nonprofit). Basically, distributive justice deals with perceptions of the “ends” and procedural justice deals with perceptions of the “means” (Lambert, 2003).

Another school added interactional justice, along with distributive and procedural justice, as the major dimensions of organizational justice (Bies & Shapiro, 1987; Wolfe & Lawson, 2020). Interactional justice deals with how staff are treated by the organization in terms of respect and providing information about procedural and distributive justice during interpersonal interactions (Colquitt, 2001; Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023).

A third school broke interactional justice into informational justice and interpersonal justice (Colquitt, 2001; Wolfe & Lawson, 2020). Information justice deals with representatives of the organization providing information about the procedures and outcomes, and providing information on the procedures that are used and why the outcome was decided (Solinas-Saunders et al., 2024; Colquitt et al., 2001). Interpersonal justice refers to the perception by a person that the organization treats workers with respect and dignity and in a professional manner, even when there are disagreements (Colquitt, 2001; Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023).

The current study used the first school in measuring organizational justice. Distributive and procedural justice are core dimensions of organizational fairness and are found in all three schools of organizational justice and are the two most common dimensions of organizational justice measured in past policing studies (Piotrowski et al., 2021; Qureshi et al., 2017).

Though concepts of distributive and procedural justice were largely developed in Western societies, the concept of fairness at work is found across the globe. Research shows that distributive and procedural justice matter in other countries. For example, among South Korean officers, a positive association between procedural justice and job commitment was reported (Crow et al., 2012). Procedural justice was also linked to affective commitment among Indian police officers (Qureshi et al., 2017). Among staff at two Chinese prisons, both distributive and procedural justice were positively related to job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment (Lambert, Liu, et al., 2018).

Both procedural and distributive justice are important for employees, regardless of nation, and both shape the psychological state of employees (Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023; Qureshi et al., 2020). Higher views of procedural justice and/or distributive justice tend to result in improved positive psychological feelings, leading to more positive outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and work effort), and fewer negative outcomes (e.g., job stress, job burnout, or turnover intent) (Lambert, Liu, et al., 2023; Qureshi et al., 2017). Conversely, low procedural and/or distributive justice views tend to result in psychological strain, leading to more positive outcomes and fewer negative outcomes (Lambert et al., 2022; Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023). Skarlicki and Folger (1997) noted that “if organizational decisions and managerial actions are deemed unfair or unjust, the affected employees experience feelings of anger, outrage, and resentment” (p. 434). There is a small but growing body of studies that indicate organizational justice views are significant predictors of various outcomes for police officers.

Higher perceptions of organizational justice are linked to more positive work attitudes and higher job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment for police officers in different nations (Amalina et al., 2022; Crow et al., 2012; Farmer et al., 2003; Jang, 2020; Lambert, Liu, et al., 2023; Peacock et al., 2023; Qureshi et al., 2017, 2020; Rosenbaum & McCarty, 2017; Sembiring et al., 2020; Wolfe et al., 2018). Further, organizational justice for police officers has been reported to increase desirable work attitudes, such as trust in the public, trust in the organization, support for democratic policing, enjoyment of being a police officer, job motivation, support for investigations of citizen complaints against law enforcement personnel, trust in supervisors, and willingness to obey supervisors (Carr & Maxwell, 2018; De Angelis & Kupchik, 2009; Lambert et al., 2025; Myhill & Bradford, 2013; Nix & Wolfe, 2016; Peacock et al., 2023; Sun et al., 2022; Trinkner et al., 2016). Higher levels of organizational justice are also linked to desirable work behaviors, such as job performance, organizational citizenship behaviors (i.e., prosocial behaviors that go beyond what is expected), and compliance with agency rules (Amalina et al., 2022; Eka et al., 2022; Piotrowski et al., 2021; Rosenbaum & McCarty, 2017; Y. Wu et al., 2019). By contrast, organizational fairness is inversely associated with negative work outcomes among police officers, in terms of job burnout, feeling at risk on the job, noble-cause corruption beliefs (i.e., the feeling of having to overlook departmental and/or legal guidelines to do the job), the view that the public is cynical of the police, the willingness to remain silent when fellow officers commit misconduct, and corrupt tendencies (Balogun, 2023; Kaygusuz & Beduk, 2015; Lawson et al., 2022; Nix & Wolfe, 2016; Trinkner et al., 2016; Wolfe & Piquero, 2011). Finally, organizational justice is positively associated with the well-being of officers (Rani et al., 2012; Trinkner et al., 2016).

Overall, past research has indicated that perceptions of organizational justice are related to higher levels of several positive work outcomes and lower levels of negative outcomes for police officers; however, only one published study has examined how these views relate to life satisfaction among police officers (Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023). In that study, focusing on officers working in India, views on distributive justice, procedural justice for evaluations, and procedural justice for promotions all had similar-sized positive associations with life satisfaction (Lambert, Qureshi et al., 2023). As one study is not definitive, there is a need for additional research to explore how procedural and distributive justice are related to life satisfaction among officers, particularly in other nations, including China.

Life Satisfaction

Life satisfaction is considered a component of subjective well-being (Diener, 1984). Subjective well-being is an individual’s cognitive of their overall life (Diener et al., 2002). Positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction are the major parts of subjective well-being (Erdogan et al., 2012; Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023). Diener et al. (1985) indicated that positive and negative affects “refer to the affective, emotional aspects” of subjective well-being and that life satisfaction refers to the “cognitive-judgmental aspects” of subjective well-being (p. 71). Negative affectivity refers to expressing negative emotions and experiencing high levels of psychological distress (Diener et al., 1985; Lambert, Jiang et al., 2018). Positive affectivity involves expressing positive emotions and having a high level of psychological well-being (Diener et al., 1985; Kapikiran, 2012). Life satisfaction is the cognitive assessment of how satisfied a person is with his or her overall life (Diener, 1984; Erdogan et al., 2012). Life satisfaction refers to an individual’s overall evaluation of life, not specific parts of life such as marriage or job (Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023; Pavot & Diener, 2008). As such, it represents a person’s global cognitive assessment of his or her entire life (Diener, 1984; Lambert et al., 2022).

The limited research on life satisfaction among police officers indicates that work experiences affect the level of satisfaction with life among officers. Positive workplace factors tend to increase the level of life satisfaction among officers. For example, job involvement, work engagement (i.e., work motivation in terms of cognitive, emotional, and physical engagement), job satisfaction, workplace support, and organizational commitment all had positive associations with life satisfaction among police officers (Akram et al., 2019; Lambert et al., 2021; T. Liu et al., 2019; Redman & Snape, 2006). Negative workplace variables are linked to lower life satisfaction among police officers. For example, job stress, job burnout, work–family conflict (the spillover of problems between home and work), role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload have all been associated with reduced life satisfaction among police officers (Lambert et al., 2021; T. Liu et al., 2019; Martinussen et al., 2007; Redman & Snape, 2006; Ryu et al., 2020; Tundwal & Behmani, 2016; Yusuf & Khan, 2018). As noted earlier, procedural and distributive justice views were positively related to life satisfaction in a study involving officers in India (Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023).

Focus of the Current Study

The current study explored the association between views on distributive and procedural justice and the life satisfaction of police officers in China. It is worth noting that, in mainland China, the People’s Police consist of several distinct branches: the public security police, national security police, judicial police within people’s courts and people’s procuratorates, and correctional police in prisons and other correctional institutions (Shen, 2022). While their mandates differ, officers across these branches operate within broadly similar—though not identical—institutional contexts.

Although both types of organizational justice are related to work attitudes, and procedural justice typically has a stronger effect in Western contexts, their relationships appear to differ in China. For example, based on bivariate associations, Jiang et al. (2016) found that distributive justice was associated with job satisfaction among Chinese community correctional staff, but procedural justice was not. Lambert, Jiang et al. (2018) reported that distributive justice was significantly related to job involvement and job satisfaction among Chinese prison staff, but procedural justice was not. The same study also found that both distributive justice and procedural justice were related to organizational commitment, but the former had a stronger correlation. reported positive relationships between distributive justice and life satisfaction, and between procedural justice and life satisfaction, among Chinese prison staff; the former relationship was stronger than the latter. According to J. Liu et al. (2022), for Chinese prison staff, distributive justice had a significant negative effect on the strain-based form of work–family conflict, while procedural justice did not. Lambert et al. (2023) presented that both distributive justice and procedural justice were negatively related to Chinese correctional staff’s stress, but the former had a stronger correlation. In a study of Chinese police officers, Lambert et al. (2023) found that both distributive justice and procedural justice were positively related to organizational commitment, and the former had a stronger correlation.

There are different reasons that may affect the relationships between distributive justice and work attitudes and between procedural justice and work attitudes in China. The first reason is economic. Since the late 1970s, following China’s shift toward a market economy, the widely cited slogan “to be rich is glorious” encapsulated a new social ethos, in which the pursuit of wealth has become a dominant social ideal (Yan, 2009). Also, China has developed rapidly from an agricultural economy with low pay to a growing economy with increasing costs. Workers seek greater material rewards for themselves and their families (Frenkel et al., 2012; Lambert, Liu et al., 2018).

Confucianism-based collectivism provides another explanation for the differing relationships between distributive justice and work attitudes, and between procedural justice and work attitudes, in China. Confucianism emphasizes morality-based informal control, family obligations, and societal responsibility rather than the rule of law and individual rights (Jiang & Lambert, 2009). Under collectivism, authority and hierarchy are important. Power distance in China was and is much higher than in the West (J. Liu et al., 2022). Due to this culture, a voice in the process of decision-making and transparent procedures, which are salient parts of procedural justice, may not be as important to Chinese criminal justice professionals. In addition, in Western contexts such as the United States, criminal justice staff are represented by unions and collective bargaining agreements, where procedural justice—rather than personal authority—is emphasized (Lambert, Liu et al., 2018). In addition, under a tradition of Confucianism, fairness in outcomes rather than the principle of procedural fairness is advocated (Jiang et al., 2016; Jiang & Wu, 2015).

The spillover theory explains why workplace variables such as procedural and distributive could be related to officers’ life satisfaction (Lambert et al., 2021; Steiner & Truxillo, 1989). It holds that workplace variables can spill over and affect other areas of a person’s life, and vice versa (Erdogan et al., 2012; Lambert et al., 2021). Feeling that work procedures and outcomes are fair is likely to result in positive psychological feelings (Erdogan et al., 2012; Lambert, Qureshi, et al., 2023). These positive psychological feelings from work are likely to follow them home, contributing to overall satisfaction with life. Conversely, viewing organizational procedures and outcomes as unfair may raise psychological strain (Lambert et al., 2022; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). The psychological strain is unlikely to end along with the work shift, but instead may spill over, negatively affecting the overall life satisfaction of the person.

In the current study, views on distributive justice (Hypothesis 1) and procedural justice (Hypothesis 2) were hypothesized to have an association with higher life satisfaction among police officers.

Methods

Participants

This study had human subjects approval and the agency in the Chinese government that oversaw the police. The study followed all ethical research standards and participation was completely voluntary. Data were collected from officers during training programs in three areas located in southern, central, and western China. These three areas were selected to represent the different regions of China and because the research team had access to the training sites in each of these areas.

Officers attending training in each area were invited to participate in the study. Those who agreed to participate received a questionnaire written in Chinese, which they completed at the training location. A total of 665 questionnaires were distributed across the three locations in roughly equal proportions. All participants were informed that the survey was voluntary, that they should not include their names or leave any identifying marks, and that they could withdraw from the survey or skip any question at any time. A total of 586 completed surveys were returned, which is a response rate of 88%. In terms of location, 32% were from the southern Chinese area, 35% from the central area, and 34% from the western area. Only the research team had access to the returned surveys. The participating officers were comparable to the officers attending the training in terms of gender, age, and tenure; however, information on educational level and marital status was not available for the overall group of officer attendees. It is important to note that the data collection design was cross-sectional and not longitudinal, which means this is a study of associations, and causal relationships cannot be empirically shown.

Variables

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable was life satisfaction, and it was measured using three items from Diener et al. (1985): (a) I am satisfied with my life; (b) Taking all things together, I am very happy with my life; and (c) If asked, I would say I am satisfied with the quality of my overall life. The response option for the items was 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = somewhat disagree, 4 = somewhat agree, 5 = agree, and 6 = strongly agree. The Cronbach alpha for these items was.91. The responses were summed to form an additive index for life satisfaction.

Independent Variables

Distributive and procedural justice were the independent variables of interest and were adapted from Lambert et al. (2020). Views of distributive justice were measured using the following items: (a) How fair has this organization been in rewarding you when you consider the amount of effort that you have put forth? (b) How fair has this organization been in rewarding you when you consider the responsibilities that you have at work? and (c) How fair has this organization been in rewarding you when you consider the work you have done well? Views of procedural justice were measured with: (a) How fair is the promotion process here? (b) How fair is the process of the evaluation of your job performance at this organization? and (c) How fair is this organization in explaining decisions that have a significant effect on you? The response options were: 1 = very unfair, 2 = unfair, 3 = somewhat fair, 4 = fair, and 5 = very fair.

Finally, personal characteristics of gender, educational level, age, tenure in the position, and marital status were included mainly as control rather than explanatory variables, as they may influence perceptions of organizational justice or life satisfaction or moderate the relationship between them. Gender can be related to differential exposure to role conflict, harassment, and work–family conflict in policing, which features of the occupational culture that affect both stress and attitudinal outcomes, and may spill over into how procedures and outcomes are evaluated as fair or unfair (Morash & Haarr, 1995; Rabe‑Hemp, 2009). Age reflects changes in motivational priorities and emotion regulation throughout life. As people age, they prioritize goals with emotional significance and exhibit greater emotional stability (Carstensen, 2021). These patterns are associated with higher job and life satisfaction and may influence responses to organizational justice (Ng & Feldman, 2010). Educational attainment shapes expectations and opportunity structures inside agencies. Higher education can raise expectations for fair promotion and evaluation, with confirmation or disconfirmation of those expectations influencing satisfaction; relatedly, perceived overqualification is consistently associated with lower job attitudes (Erdogan & Bauer, 2021; Solomon et al., 2022). Tenure reflects an officer’s career stage, and existing literature suggests that tenure can significantly decrease life satisfaction (Lambert, 2010). Marital status was also controlled, as the social support provided by a partner is likely to influence fair judgment and overall well-being, and there is evidence that being married or partnered is associated with higher life satisfaction (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Jung & Han, 2024).

In the current study, gender was measured as men=1 and women=0. Age and tenure in the position were measured in years. Educational level was coded as a dichotomous variable representing whether the participant had earned a bachelor’s degree or higher (coded as 1) or not (coded as 0). Marital status was measured as 0 = not married and 1 = married. Again, these are variables commonly used in life satisfaction studies as they may influence a person’s level of satisfaction with life (Erdogan et al., 2012).

Results

The descriptive statistics for the variables are reported in Table 1. There appeared to be significant variation in both the dependent and independent variables (i.e., none were constants). The Cronbach alpha values for the latent concepts (e.g., life satisfaction) were above .90, which is viewed as very good (DataTab, 2024). While not reported in tabular format, gender, educational level, age, tenure, and marital status had nonsignificant correlations with life satisfaction. Both distributive and procedural justice had significant moderate-sized positive correlations (Cohen, 1988). Increases in either dimension of organizational justice were associated with higher satisfaction with life among the studied police officers in China.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables.

Variable	Description	Min	Max	Md	Mn	SD
Gender	16% female (coded 0) 84% male (coded 1)	0	1	0	0.84	0.36
Educ level	21% less than Bachelor (coded 0) 79% Bachelor or higher (coded 1)	0	1	1	0.79	0.40
Age	Age in continuous years	21	57	35	36.37	7.35
Tenure	Tenure in years in current position	0.1	40	5	6.21	5.48
Marital status	12% single (coded 0) 88% married (coded 1)	0	1	1	0.88	0.33
Distributive	3-item additive index, α = .92	3	15	9	9.10	2.73
Procedural	3-item additive index, α = .91	3	15	9	9.07	2.66
Life satisfaction	3-item additive index, α = .91	3	18	12	12.35	3.18

Note. Min stands for minimum value, Max for maximum value, Md for median value, Mn for mean value, SD for standard deviation value, Educ Level for educational level, Distributive for distributive justice, Procedural for procedural justice, and α for Cronbach’s alpha value, a measure of internal reliability. The number of participants was 586.

An Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression equation was estimated with life satisfaction as the dependent variable and personal characteristics and views on justice as the independent variables. The results are reported in Table 2. Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) scores above 5 indicate a problem with multicollinearity among the independent variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). The highest VIF score was 3.26, and multicollinearity was not seen as an issue. The issues of outliers, influential cases, normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity of residuals, and independence of errors in the regression analysis were tested and addressed (Berry, 1993; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013).

Table 2.

OLS Regression Results for Justice Views with Chinese Police Officer Life Satisfaction.

Variable	B	SE	β	VIF
Gender	–.03	.32	−.003	1.07
Educational level	−.10	.30	−.01	1.09
Age	−.01	.02	−.03	1.28
Tenure	.03	.02	.04	1.21
Marital status	.87	.36	.09*	1.07
Distributive justice	.42	.08	.36**	3.22
Procedural justice	.25	.08	.21**	3.26
F value	33.88 (541)
R ²	.31

Note. B represents the unstandardized regression coefficient, SE for the standard error of the coefficient, β for the standardized regression coefficient, VIF for the variance inflation factor, a measure of multicollinearity, and (df) for degrees of freedom. See Table 1 for a description of the variables, how they were measured, and their descriptive statistics.

p ≤ .05, **p ≤ .01.

The independent variables explained approximately 31% of the variance of the life satisfaction index (i.e., R-squared was .31). Among the personal characteristics, only marital status had a significant association. Partnered officers reported higher life satisfaction than their single counterparts. Both dimensions of organizational justice had significant positive associations with satisfaction with life. Using the absolute values of the significant standardized regression coefficients (i.e., the values in the β column of Table 2), the association can be ranked from largest to smallest. Distributive justice had the largest association, followed by procedural justice. Marital status had the smallest association.

Discussion

The current findings support the postulation that views on organizational justice are associated with higher life satisfaction. It is important to note again that the current study only explored associations between the organizational justice variables and life satisfaction, as a cross-sectional data collection design was utilized, and a longitudinal data collection design is required to demonstrate causality empirically. The current cross-sectional design indicated that both procedural and distributive justice views were significant positive predictors, which indicates that both are important for predicting life satisfaction. The current findings are similar to those found by Lambert, Qureshi, et al. (2023), who reported that measures of distributive justice, procedural justice for evaluations, and procedural justice for promotions were related to higher life satisfaction among officers in India. These two studies involving officers in different nations suggest that organizational justice is an important workplace factor in policing and is connected to officers’ overall satisfaction with life. It is important to note that two studies are not sufficient to conclude that this association is universal. Additional research involving officers from different nations is needed to determine whether the relationship between organizational justice and life satisfaction is universal or context-specific, varying in different settings (nations). Nonetheless, the current study adds to the literature and will help answer this question eventually.

On the other hand, there are differences between the current findings and the results reported by Lambert, Qureshi, et al. (2023). Distributive justice showed a slightly stronger association with life satisfaction in this study compared to Lambert, Qureshi, et al.’s (2023) study. This suggests that while both dimensions of organizational justice are important predictors of higher life satisfaction for officers, the size of their associations may vary across different settings. Outcomes appear more important to officers in China than to officers in India. Distributive justice may hold particular significance in China due to the profound emphasis on financial rewards as indicators of achievement and success in the market economy during the reform and post-reform eras (Shen, 2015). This is also true for public officials, including police officials. For example, one key factor contributing to the job satisfaction of female police officers in China is the competitive pay and benefits they receive (Shen, 2022). Further research is needed to test this explanation and the possible difference in results between officers in China and the U.S.

Except for marital status, none of the other personal characteristics had significant associations with life satisfaction in the current study. It appears that the personal characteristics of gender, educational level, age, and tenure in the position do not have a direct association with life satisfaction among the responding Chinese police officers once the shared relationships with distributive and procedural justice are taken into account in multivariate analysis. Married officers generally reported higher life satisfaction compared to unmarried officers. Having a partner at home may provide additional support and contribute to a more satisfying life for the officers in the current study. Further, having a partner at home may provide more enjoyment in life than is experienced by single police officers. Similar findings that married employees tend to report higher life satisfaction have also been observed in other occupations (Diener et al., 2000; Erdogan et al., 2012).

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

As with any research, the current study has limitations. First, it was a single study conducted among officers in only one nation, China. Further research is needed in diverse settings to determine whether these findings can be replicated (J. Liu & Li, 2024). Second, the current study measured the latent concepts of life satisfaction, distributive justice, and procedural justice using three items each. Future research may benefit from employing a larger number of items to measure these latent concepts more comprehensively. Third, in the current study, 31% of the variance in life satisfaction was explained, leaving 69% of the observed variance unexplained. This means that variables other than those examined in the current study account for most of the life satisfaction of the studied officers. Future research needs to explore additional workplace and home life variables that shape police officers’ life satisfaction. Furthermore, although the current study was grounded in theoretical literature, it used a cross-sectional design, which allowed for inferences about relationships but does not provide empirical evidence to demonstrate causality. Longitudinal research is required to establish causal relationships empirically.

Another limitation of the current study was only direct associations between distributive and procedural justice with life satisfaction among police officers in China. Future research should explore whether the associations between organizational justice and life satisfaction are mediated by other concepts, such as organizational trust, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job burnout. Further, future studies that examine the possible mediating role of other concepts should also include both informational and interpersonal justice to determine how they are directly or indirectly related to the life satisfaction of police officers. For example, informational and interactional justice views may influence distributive and procedural justice views. In turn, distributive and procedural justice influence organizational trust views (trust a person has in the employing organization, and then organizational trust is associated with life satisfaction). Further, future research should examine if the rank a person holds in a police agency is related to life satisfaction, as well as organizational culture. Further, new studies should explore whether there are regional variations in the associations and the level of life satisfaction. This new research should provide critical information on whether and how associations between organizational justice and life satisfaction occur.

Further, the current study did not measure cultural and social variables in China, which could influence the results. Interpersonal relationships in Chinese society often revolve around “face,” personal connections, maintaining harmony, and social networks. The prison environment, as a microcosm of society, exhibits a similar pattern in its organizational life. Our cross-sectional survey did not directly measure these cultural mechanisms, nor did it measure the prison-specific atmosphere; therefore, we cannot determine whether the effects of organizational and distributive justice can be explained by relationalist criminal justice theory, nor can we determine whether they differ between policing and prison environments.

Future research should develop and validate relationalist-based variables, such as relationalist personal trait scales involving face, harmonious relationships, and honor, and add indicators for measuring prison atmosphere. Moreover, this study focused on the direct association between distributive justice and procedural justice on officers’ life satisfaction. We did not conduct systematic mediation analysis through psychological mechanisms such as trust, burnout, or organizational commitment, nor did we incorporate additional justice dimensions or potential moderators. And the cross-sectional design limits causal and temporal claims that are typically required to justify mediation models.

Adding ad-hoc proxies post hoc would risk constructing under-representation and model overfitting. Similarly, testing multiple interactions without adequate power or cross-level identifiers would inflate Type I error and yield difficult-to-interpret conditional effects. The current study, therefore, treats the findings as evidence of robust conditional associations, while acknowledging that a fuller process model could sharpen theoretical explanation. Future work should add informational and interpersonal justice and use multisite sampling or longitudinal designs to identify pathways and contextual contingencies more decisively.

With that said, our research will help police administrators and scholars better understand officers’ life satisfaction and help identify effective measures to improve it for police officers. As mentioned earlier, despite the fact that life satisfaction is critically important, especially in the demanding field of policing, there has been very limited research in this area. Future studies should examine the relationships of life satisfaction on various aspects of police work, such as work performance, organizational citizenship behaviors (i.e., prosocial work behaviors that exceed expectations), workplace deviance, absenteeism, turnover intent, and turnover. While the current study focused on procedural justice and distributive justice, interpersonal and informational justice are two additional salient dimensions of organizational justice.

Informational justice concerns explaining procedures and outcomes to employees (Colquitt et al., 2001; Lambert, Liu, et al., 2023; Wolfe & Lawson, 2020), and interpersonal justice concerns supervisors and administrators treating employees in a respectful and dignified manner (Colquitt et al., 2001; Lambert et al., 2022; Y. Wu et al., 2023). Future research may wish to include these additional dimensions of organizational justice to provide a more nuanced understanding. In addition, research to measure officers’ perceptions of procedural and distributive justice effectively and efficiently is warranted. Further studies in this area will provide a clearer understanding of police officers’ life satisfaction as well as how organizational justice is associated with it.

If the current results are replicated, police administrators should focus on improving officers’ perceptions of procedural and distributive justice to enhance their overall life satisfaction. Staff members, and officers in particular, are a valuable asset to policy agencies; therefore, understanding their views on fairness in procedures and outcomes is crucial. Police agencies should obtain feedback from officers about their views on fairness and then determine the reasons behind any dissatisfaction to address their concerns effectively. It is crucial to ensure that officers feel comfortable in providing honest feedback. This may be done by creating an environment where officers can share their views without fear of retaliation. Officers should be given greater opportunities to contribute to the reshaping of organizational justice within the police agency. Thibaut and Walker (1975) referred to “allowing a person to have a voice in the organization”; however, providing a voice does not obligate police administrators to implement every suggested change. Rather, allowing a voice encourages discussions on the reasons behind the suggestions and why some suggested changes can or cannot be made. Informational justice, which involves clearly explaining processes and decisions, is important here. Instrumental communication—providing essential information about job roles and organizational changes—can significantly enhance informational justice and help officers succeed in their roles (Chan & Lai, 2017; Lambert et al., 2008).

Employees often view supervisors and managers as representatives of the organization, making them key indicators of how organizational justice is applied. Workers tend to associate organizational justice with the behavior and decision-making of their leaders (Erdogan, 2002); therefore, it is essential for supervisors and managers to understand the importance of distributive and procedural justice. They should receive training to ensure that organizational procedures and outcomes are viewed as fair by their employees. Furthermore, Li and Cropanzano (2009) argued that organizations need to cultivate what they called a “justice climate,” in which fairness is stressed and valued. This entails not only training supervisors and managers in procedural and distributive justice but also evaluating and rewarding their efforts in building these areas.

Notably, it may require some time and effort to improve distributive justice, while enhancements to procedural justice can be achieved more quickly. Martin and Bennett (1996) pointed out that “the economic costs of acting in a procedurally fair manner—treating individuals with respect, providing advance notice of and justification for actions—are minimal” (p. 100). Nevertheless, it is critical to recognize that efforts to raise distributive justice cannot be ignored, even if they require significant time and effort. This is particularly pertinent within the Chinese police, given the current socioeconomic climate in Chinese society.

Conclusion

In closing, police officers are invaluable assets, entrusted with an array of responsibilities to protect and serve the community. Police agencies must invest in and safeguard this valuable resource. Enhancing officers’ life satisfaction is a keyway to promote their well-being. Accordingly, more research is needed to fully understand officer life satisfaction. As Donovan and Halpern (2002) contended, “a greater knowledge of the causes of life satisfaction holds up a mirror in which we can see ourselves better” (p. 41). At the very least, it is hoped that our study will inspire further research into the life satisfaction of police officers across the globe.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Anqi Shen

Ethical Considerations

This study had human subjects’ approval and the study followed ethical principles.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Jianhong Liu is a distinguished professor of Faculty of Law at University of Macau. He is the winner of 2016 ASC “Freda Adler Distinguished International Scholar Award” and the 2018 ACJS “G. O.W. Mueller Award for Distinguished Contribution to International Criminal Justice” His primary research interest is comparative criminology. He has published 210 academic publications.

Eric Lambert is a retired faculty member in the School of Public and Environmental Affairs in the College of Health and Human Services at Indiana University Northwest. His research interests include death penalty views and the job and organizational effects on the attitudes, intentions, and behaviors of criminal justice employees.

Shanhe Jiang is a professor of criminology and criminal justice at Wayne State University. His current research focuses on institutional corrections and community corrections, criminology of place, and trinary system of social and crime control in China.

Anqi Shen is a professor of Law at Northumbria Law School. Her research interests include sentencing, policing, organized crime (including human trafficking, counterfeiting, gangs, sex management and fraud), youth justice, gender and crime, the legal profession, migration and crime, and gender and law enforcement. Before joining Northumbria University, Shen was Reader in Law at Teesside University where she was a member of the REF Steering Group and UoA Lead for Law. Prior to coming to Britain, she was a police officer and subsequently a practising lawyer in China.

Zhan Tuo is a Ph.D. student in the Faculty of Law at Faculty of Law in the University of Macau, China. His research interests include death penalty views among Chinese citizens, police in China, and how workplace variables affect staff working in Chinese prisons.

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