Historical and Contemporary Influences in Public School Orchestra

History of String Orchestra in Public Schools

The history of string orchestras in American public schools has been marked by various phases, challenges, and influential figures. As early as the 1700s, the availability of instruments posed a challenge, with only affluent individuals affording European-made instruments (Humphreys 1989). According to the Johnson String Instrument Website, the American Collection, American manufacturers produced more affordable models in the 1800s, easing the establishment of string orchestras in public schools. Instrumental music classes were established in the late 1800s and were initially considered extracurricular, often taught before or after school (Mark 2008). The early 1900s witnessed a major expansion in instrumental music classes in public schools, a rise in full-time music teacher positions, academic credit for orchestra classes, and increased resources for music education (Mark 2008).

However, European-trained music teachers, who were accustomed to working with elite instrumentalists, and had no experience or training teaching a mix of band and string instruments, struggled with effective teaching practices (Mark 2008). This led to a decline in string orchestra programs in schools in the 1930s and 1940s. Other factors that contributed to this decline include the American band model, the consequences of the World Wars, and poor teaching techniques in string classes (Birge 2011; Turner 2001). For example, World War veterans returned to the states looking to use their leadership skills as teachers. These veterans mostly had experience with the American band model, also known as military-style bands, which did not easily transfer to string orchestras, creating challenges with group string education techniques (Turner 2001). Because group teaching techniques in string orchestra classes were poor, this made it difficult to recruit or retain students in school orchestras (Turner 2001).

Efforts from professional organizations like Music Teachers National Association and Music Educators National Conference helped revive string orchestras in the mid-1900s. This era also saw adaptations driven by the Cold War that enhanced accessibility including the transition from horsehair to synthetic bow hair materials, prompted by a shortage of real horsehair (Reed and Stenger 1996). This shift not only addressed the scarcity of horsehair but also made bow materials more affordable and widely available. Additionally, organizations like ASTA provided ongoing support during this period (Reed and Stenger 1996).

In a further attempt to thwart the decline of orchestra programs in public schools, established string orchestra pedagogues were invited to the United States to share their insight. Notable pedagogues like Kató Havas, Schinichi Suzuki, and Paul Rolland, all string pedagogues trained in Europe, played pivotal roles in improving string orchestra education in the mid-1900s. They introduced effective teaching techniques such as proper ear training and encouraged inclusivity, accepting all students regardless of their “talent” to play in string orchestra (Perkins 1995; Reed and Stenger 1996). Not only did these pedagogies influence contemporary practices and attitudes for both students and teachers in string orchestra but their teaching ideas also influenced method books and curriculum. Ideas that previously needed to be explicitly stated in curriculum materials are now innate parts of method books. For example, Havas and Suzuki recommended starting the left hand with three fingers on the fingerboard to form the hand shape, and many popular contemporary method books use this approach. In Rolland’s 1947 work The Teaching of Strings, he suggested having students play the “corresponding scale immediately preceding a piece” (p. 36) in that key, a practice that is present in curricular sequencing.

The 1960s marked a resurgence of string orchestras, supported by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 funding and initiatives like the Paul Rolland String Research Project (Reed and Stenger 1996). The era saw increased instrument sales, the removal of tax on imported music, and the use of television and videos for promotion and teacher preparation (Reed and Stenger 1996). String orchestras in American public schools underwent growth, decline, and subsequent revitalization, influenced by European education models and adaptable pedagogies in the United States, further supported by professional organizations.

Twenty-First Century Practices in American School String Orchestras

Prominent figures in string orchestra in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries combine knowledge and skills from a variety of fields to disperse the most vetted information to teachers, students, and other music professionals. Professionals have access to summaries of the latest trends in string orchestra practices, thanks to researchers such as Robert Gillespie and Donald Hamann as early as 1998, and more recently in 2018 by Bret P. Smith, James P. Mick, and Michael Alexander. The studies indicate generally positive trends for string orchestra programs in public schools and note areas of improvement, many of which are outside the control of music educators.

On a positive note, multiple reports indicate that orchestra enrollment in schools has increased since the 1980s (Gillespie and Hamann 1998; Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018). This has led to an increase in the need for string orchestra teachers. In Gillespie and Hamann’s (1998) report of string orchestra programs, they noted that there would be a need for 1,000 string teachers in the next five years. This was corroborated in 2010 by the National String Project Consortium calling for an additional 3,000 string orchestra teachers to support the growing population of string students and the job market. Despite the lack of preparation of string teachers in the past, in 2018, 96% of teachers reported holding a teaching certificate and more than 70% of string teachers had a master’s degree (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018). Other positive reports indicated that most string programs followed a prescribed curriculum (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018); though, not all of them are using the ASTA String Curriculum, as recommended by ASTA (Benham 2021).

There are concerns about the future of string orchestras in schools due to insufficient funding and fewer teachers. Both the National String Project Consortium and Smith, Mick, and Alexander’s (2018) study noted a decline in funding for string orchestra programs. Additionally, 48% of schools reported string orchestra job openings (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018), but it is difficult to tell the extent to which this affects string offerings or programs. Robert Morrison (2024) finds that further skepticism regarding the thriving status of music programs in schools may be unfounded despite “extensive number of educators leaving the field,. . . the increasing encroachment of political issues into the schools, and a significant decrease in the number of students choosing education as a career pathway.” Although there has been no national study regarding the status of string orchestra since 2018, Morrison (2024) reports that 92% of students have access to music education, and 50% of students participate in school music programs. This marks an overall positive note for string orchestra as a part of the broader field of music education.

Contemporary Influences of String Specialists in Higher Education

Reflecting on the history and the state of string orchestra education in public schools as of 2018, it is important to consider the individuals and their impact on the profession in more recent years. Professionals in higher education are influencing pre-service teachers in their pursuit of music education as a profession as well as conducting research in the realm of string orchestra education. Many influential individuals in higher education also teach or have taught in public schools, namely music education professors with expertise in string teaching. Some of the most prolific researchers, educators, and writers in string orchestra that are now influential in higher education as music teacher educators include (but are certainly not limited to) Gail Barnes, Brenda Brenner, John Geringer, Michael Hopkins, Rebecca MacLeod, Kristen Pellegrino, and Margaret Schmidt. Most of these individuals were string teachers themselves at one point and then developed into researchers and educators at the collegiate level.

Many professors in higher education also serve their local school districts. Dr. Brenner leads a program at Fairview Elementary in Bloomington, Indiana for low-income students to learn to play string instruments. Dr. MacLeod leads the Lillian Rauch Beginning Strings Program and the Peck Alumni Leadership Program, both of which provide string instruction to underserved students. These professors are important in the realm of public education as well as the field of string education research because string orchestra is a specialized field, and unlike many other fields of music education, there are a limited number of individuals doing rigorous research and publishing it specifically for string orchestra. Not only do these professionals play a major part in the research for string orchestra, but they also influence the next generation of string teachers that are in public schools. Collegiate string orchestra educators significantly influence public school string programs by coaching hundreds of string teachers with research-backed approaches.

Contemporary Influences of ASTA

The ASTA String Curriculum and subsequent String Assessment Guide were created out of the need for national guidelines that apply specifically to string orchestra, not just instrumental music education. The ASTA String Curriculum was first published in 2011 (with an updated edition published in 2021), and the String Assessment Guide was published in 2018. The authors of these materials are Stephen J. Benham, Mary L. Wagner, Jane Linn Aten, Judith P. Evans, Denese Odegaard, Julie Lyonn Lieberman, and Margaret Berg. Each of these individuals has contributed to strings at both local and national levels, beginning their careers as string teachers and expanding their works to include authoring method books and teaching materials, conducting research, conducting large ensembles, and teaching in higher education. Each author and contributor has impacted the teaching of string orchestra in a unique way, but together in creating the ASTA String Curriculum and String Assessment Guide, they have set string orchestra apart from other arts and ensured that string orchestra, with its unique instrumentation and teaching techniques, has the foundations for successful teaching in public schools.

The curriculum is comprehensive, designed for both individual lessons and group instruction in public schools, spanning novice to advanced levels. It includes advice, sample lesson plans, and aims to enhance string orchestra programs by integrating diverse music and fostering essential skills in ear training and mechanics. Furthermore, the assessment manual uses best practices from research to assess student knowledge and playing ability. All of these materials contribute to a more uniform approach to teaching string orchestra in public school strings programs.

ASTA also has a vast network of professionals dedicated to helping each other and advancing the profession. State chapters regularly host events, and the annual ASTA National Conference is always well-attended. Virtual events are also popular, from the ASTA Virtual String Teachers Summit to ASTA-sponsored teacher workshops. Other online resources include the American String Teacher journal and the String Research Journal, both of which provide valuable insight into the field of string teaching from a variety of professionals in the field. In summary, ASTA’s curricular materials and community support significantly influence string orchestra teachers.

Contemporary Influences of Method Book Authors and Composers

Many method books are designed as curricula and are used in combination with repertoire to make string orchestra curricula in local schools. Method book authors have great influence over teaching practices because the teacher editions of method books are designed as curriculum guides for string orchestra teachers. Method books primarily serve public school orchestras but can also be used in individual or private settings. Some of the most influential method book authors include Robert Gillespie, Michael Allen, Pamela Telejohn Hayes, Bob Phillips, Gail V. Barnes, Mark O’Connor, and Michael Alexander, who authored method books such as Essential Elements for Strings, Sound Innovations for Strings, and Measures of Success for String Orchestra, to name a few. Similarly, string orchestra composers for school-level groups leverage students’ foundational learning in public school orchestras to create arrangements of European classical music and contemporary original compositions that are developmentally appropriate to be performed at concerts and graded assessments. Many of the most performed string orchestra composers, such as Brian Balmages, Elliot Del Borgo, Larry Clark, Carrie Lane Grusselle, Merle J. Isaac, Robert McCashin, Richard Meyer, and Soon Hee Newbold, also compose for band ensembles or have published method books as well.

While these individuals have contributed and continue to contribute to the instructional materials related to teaching string orchestra in public schools, string orchestra in public schools is successful because of the effort from teachers in thousands of programs across the United States. String orchestra teachers are now engaging their students in a variety of genres including popular music, mariachi, fiddle, and jazz while maintaining European classical literature from its inception. Additionally, teachers are using new teaching techniques such as informal learning practices, online lessons, and contemporary assessment practices like MakeMusic software, formerly known as SmartMusic. The combination of effort from professors in higher education, ASTA, method book authors, and repertoire composers make string orchestra teaching and learning approachable, successful, and more inclusive than ever before.

Progress and Considerations

With the help of music professionals, collegiate educators, and professional organizations, string orchestra programs in public schools have flourished since their inception in the late 1800s. The most convenient way to offer orchestra ensembles in the late 1800s was to allow students who already had experience on the instrument the opportunity to join the school orchestra. However, this created an elitist structure that made it difficult for novice students to join school orchestras. European practices are at the root of string orchestra tradition due to the origins of the practice in America. European musicians performed and taught in American schools to start, and the instruments themselves originated in Europe. It was not until American companies realized a way to mass produce instruments that they became American-made.

The exception to the growth in string orchestra programs was in the early 1900s. Authors like Turner (2001) attribute this decline to band programs, while professionals like Rolland (1947) clearly assign blame to orchestral teaching practices. Rolland, as well as pedagogues such as Havas and Suzuki, worked to address this decline. Their efforts aimed to better equip orchestra teachers to effectively teach beginners and all levels of string orchestra. These initiatives resulted in increases in enrollment and improved teacher preparation (Perkins 1995; Reed and Stenger 1996). Although most of these pedagogues, as well as current teachers, are violinists (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018), many of the skills transfer to the full instrumentation of the string orchestra, and teacher preparation programs now focus more attention on training on all string orchestra instruments. Pedagogues like Havas, Suzuki, and Rolland all agreed on a need for proper ear training as well as an acceptance for all students, regardless of their “talent” to play in string orchestra (Perkins 1995). Not only did these pedagogues influence contemporary practices and attitudes for both students and teachers in string orchestra but also, they also laid the foundations for modern beginning string teaching methods and sequencing of instruction.

Although string orchestra enrollment continues to rise, funding for these programs is decreasing and there is a need for orchestra teachers in the field (Gillespie and Hamann 1998; Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018). However, according to a study conducted in 2018, the orchestra teachers that are in teaching positions are highly qualified with both teaching certificates and oftentimes master’s degrees (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018). There is some concern regarding teacher shortages in 2024, particularly those in music and arts education. However, the ongoing “Music Education Renaissance” suggests that this shortage has not significantly impacted music programs, including string orchestra programs, and there is little evidence to suggest that this will impact programs long-term (Morrison 2024). This is a stark contrast to the humble beginnings of the under-prepared orchestra teacher in the early 1900s. Based on pedagogy and enrollment, reports indicate that string orchestras are thriving.

Conclusions and Future Trends

A study from 2018 suggests a significant shortage of string orchestra teachers in relation to the number of students and programs; however, there is no clear evidence from this study that indicates a negative impact on instruction and enrollment in school orchestras (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018). As noted in the same 2018 study on the status of string orchestras in public schools, a primary concern regarding public school orchestra education is the decrease in funding, a trend not exclusive to this field but reflective of a broader decline in financial support for the arts (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018). The impression that string orchestras are suffering because of the decline in funding challenges the narrative of their adversity, as enrollment numbers and the quality of string orchestra teaching shows that string orchestra education is flourishing. There is a surplus of job opportunities in the field, and teachers are more qualified than ever to cater to the diverse ability levels of orchestra students. The positive outlook is further supported by the proactive stance of researchers who regularly report on the status of string orchestras, facilitating ongoing monitoring and progress assessment of these programs. Looking ahead, future trends are expected to audit and reshape the curriculum in orchestra programs within schools and teacher preparation programs to align orchestral education with twenty-first century practices.

The future of orchestra in American public schools appears promising, with reports indicating a continuous increase in enrollment (Smith, Mick, and Alexander 2018). This is particularly encouraging news for new string orchestra teachers seeking employment opportunities. Moreover, researchers and other string professionals express eagerness to persist in their efforts to enhance the status of school orchestras, fostering continued growth in the field. This collective commitment underscores a positive trajectory for the future of orchestral education in American public schools, with ongoing improvements anticipated through specialized string orchestra programs and a dedicated focus on adapting to the evolving landscape of music education.