Building Program Structures to Advance Vocational Research on Women

Abstract

In this paper, we react to the systematic review of the women’s career development literature conducted by Fouad et al. in this issue. We identify a variety of structural barriers that we believe have contributed to the limited advancements of research in this area. In line with recent discussions within the profession, we highlight systemic approaches across the areas of vocational psychology teaching and training, advocacy and practice, and research that are aimed to promote future research on women and work.

Keywords

women's career development systemic barriers vocational psychology women faculty counseling psychology training

Significance of the Scholarship to the Public

This article is a reaction to Fouad et al.'s (2023) systematic review of research on women's career development. We highlight systemic barriers that impact progress on research on women's career development, and call on counseling psychologists to take action to remove these systemic barriers and to improve higher education environments to be more inclusive of women and women of Color and their research.

We applaud Fouad et al. (2023) for their 25-year systematic review of the vocational psychology literature on women’s career development. It was quite an undertaking, and we appreciated their succinct description of what they gleaned from the research and their discerning evaluation of the literature. This review is a long time coming. Society and the world of work have changed radically since the most recent assessment of the research on women’s career development (Phillips & Imoff, 1997). Computer technology has changed how people communicate (electronic communication), the internet has changed how information is accessed, and virtually all work today depends on the use of computers. In addition, people in the United States have experienced wars on both domestic and global terrorism, natural catastrophes (e.g., Hurricane Katrina, Hurricane Maria, California wildfires), a major economic recession, social movements (e.g., Black Lives Matter, #MeToo), and a global health pandemic (COVID-19). It was humbling to learn, however, that while there has been an increase in research on women’s career development over time, changes in the type of research that is being conducted, the research questions that are being asked, and the new knowledge generated from this research has been modest. Although society and the world of work has transformed over the past 25 years, the state of research on women’s career development has not kept pace with societal progress.

Fouad et al. (2023) offer several important recommendations for clinical interventions and counseling psychology training, research, and advocacy to support women’s career development. There are a number of systemic obstacles that make it difficult to meet those recommendations and that slow the progress of research on women’s career development. The most critical issue to advancing research in this area, as we see it, is developing a pathway for researchers who are interested in studying women’s career development. This includes recruiting and developing counseling psychology graduate students who are interested in vocational psychology and pursuing research careers. For good reasons, faculty research positions are not perceived favorably by women, especially women from marginalized groups (Misra et al., 2021). Research indicates that women, and notably women of Color, face significant barriers in higher education including salary, representation, and promotion through the ranks. White women in higher education earn less than White men, and women of Color are paid the least relative to White men and women and men of Color (McChesney, 2018). According to a recent report by the American Psychological Association (APA; APA, 2019), a small percentage (17%) of counseling psychology doctorates in the workforce are faculty. Whereas the proportion of women faculty in psychology has increased over the past two decades, most women with doctorates in psychology (69%) pursue other jobs in the workforce. Thus, those individuals who are more likely to pursue this line of research (i.e., women) are underpaid relative to their counterparts and less likely to pursue faculty positions over other jobs (American Psychological Association, 2019; Rideau, 2021). Women in psychology who do choose to enter academic faculty positions are often not supported in these positions because of existing systems of oppression (e.g., sexism and racism) in higher education that contribute to tokenism (Settles et al., 2019), invisible labor and identity taxation (Padilla, 1994; Rideau, 2021), and epistemic exclusion (Settles et al., 2021). Importantly, the lack of recognition of these common experiences that women faculty face, or action on the part of their higher education colleagues and leaders to disrupt these systems of oppression (Fox Tree & Vaid, 2022), play a vital role in the development of—or lack of—scholarship on women and work. As a result, talented and promising researchers who can expand and transform the body of knowledge on women’s career development may opt out of academic faculty positions from the start or may be inclined to leave academia altogether (Casad et al., 2021; Cho et al., 2022). Higher educational systems—and counseling psychology programs specifically—must do more to challenge existing structures that are not favorable to women’s presence, perspectives, and contributions in higher education and research settings.

In recent years, stronger calls to transform into an antiracist and antioppressive profession have been made, both within the APA (2021) and the Society of Counseling Psychology (Reynolds, 2022; Singh, 2020; Wilcox et al., 2023), and efforts are underway to support this transformation. Vocational psychology scholars have been pushing the field to consider how oppression is reflected in our language and terminology, research, and theories for some time (e.g., Blustein, 2001; Blustein et al., 2005; Brewster & Molina, 2021; Richardson, 1993). Counseling psychologists must do more to put these calls into action. Important steps must be taken to address systemic changes within the profession to improve counseling psychology training and science and to make the science produced by vocational psychologists more inclusive (Brewster & Molina, 2021; Buchanan et al., 2021; Wilcox et al., 2023). Many of the recommendations provided by Fouad et al. (2023) will remain aspirational, and advancements in research on women’s career development will continue to progress in small increments unless there is a focus on change at the systemic level. In addition to taking action to improve higher education for women faculty as noted earlier, in the following sections, we offer suggestions for taking steps to, first, realize our potential as a field to more accurately understand the work experiences of women through research and, second, to apply this science to better intervene and improve women's work conditions.

Teaching and Training in Vocational Psychology

There have been efforts over the years to revive or reform vocational psychology training (e.g., Blustein, 1992; Blustein et al., 2005; Brewster & Molina, 2021; Robitschek & DeBell, 2002) due to the lack of interest among counseling psychology trainees in this specialty area, the perception that vocational practice is separate from psychological practice, and the oppressive foundation of the field (e.g., Heppner et al., 1996; Magee & Whiston, 2010). Scholars have raised alarms for compartmentalizing vocational training and called for counseling psychology training models that integrate vocational psychology across the curriculum (Robitschek & DeBell, 2002). These warnings have resulted in some noticeable shifts. For example, competency benchmarks for counseling psychology training programs incorporate vocational psychology as a core competency (Scheel et al., 2018) that distinguishes counseling psychology from other health service professions. In addition, one study reported that master’s level counseling trainees rated sessions in a career center and mental health center similarly in terms of the working alliance, depth, smoothness, positivity and arousal (Magee & Whiston, 2010). With regard to training, Fouad et al. (2023) advise that counseling psychology training programs specifically address women’s issues and educate students on the role of contextual factors, including barriers, and intersectionality on the career development of women.

Counseling Psychologists Must Do More

Brewster and Molina (2021) critiqued vocational psychology training for its focus on the individual client/worker instead of the systems of oppression that shape work and career development. Counseling psychologists must train students to conceptualize intersectionality from a systemic perspective (Crenshaw, 1991). Often, training focuses on understanding a client’s intersectionality from a lens of individual intersecting identities. Although important, it is essential to teach students about the interlocking systems of power and oppression that underpin the experiences of women with multiple marginalized identities to shift responsibility away from the individual (Brewster & Molina, 2021; Moradi & Grzanka, 2017). Counseling psychologists who teach vocational psychology courses have shared their challenges in the classroom when teaching from a traditional, narrow individual-level focus (Duffy, 2023; Velez, 2023). Recently, in response to Society of Counseling Psychology President Amy Reynolds’ Curriculum and Praxis Presidential Initiative, a team of vocational psychologists critically examined pedagogy in vocational psychology training and created a career counseling/vocational psychology training module from a liberation psychology perspective (APA Society of Counseling Psychology Curriculum and Praxis Group, 2022). To revolutionize career counseling and vocational psychology training, the group was guided by the following actions: (a) engaging in ongoing collective, critical reflection of understanding work, especially from a systemic perspective; (b) recognizing the interrelationship between work and well-being in people’s lives; (c) centering the work experiences of those who are most marginalized in our society; and (d) integrating community involvement, advocacy, and cross-disciplinary scholarship. The modules produced by this team contain a wealth of information and tools and can be adopted and used in vocational psychology courses immediately. Also, selected modules can be adapted to focus on women’s career development. For example, the early modules on the history and context of working and inequities in the workplace can be tailored to chronicle women’s relationship to work, both in and out of the labor force and the role of economic, sociocultural, and political forces that have shaped women’s opportunities in the labor force in the past and present day. These adapted lessons can be integrated into courses on multicultural psychology, gender issues, women’s career development, or social justice and advocacy. Future research may evaluate the effects of vocational psychology training using a systemic lens and liberation psychology approach on trainees’ interests in conducting or consuming research on women’s career development.

Advocacy and Practice in Vocational Psychology

Social justice is a core value in counseling psychology (Vera & Speight, 2003) and vocational psychology (Blustein et al., 2005; O’Brien, 2001), and there are a number of exemplar social justice-based programs implemented by vocational psychologists (e.g., Ali et al., 2019; Blustein et al., 2010; Garrison et al., 2021; Juntunen et al., 2006; McWhirter et al., 2019). With few exceptions (i.e., Goodman et al., 2004), social justice advocacy and practice has not been strongly reflected in counseling psychology training. Specifically, in an analysis of the syllabi for diversity courses in counseling and counseling psychology, researchers found that most courses relied on the development of cultural competencies at the individual level, and few covered social justice topics, such as systemic and institutional racism, antiracism, and power (Pieterse et al., 2009). In their major contribution, Fouad et al. (2023) suggest that counseling psychologists provide psychoeducation on the barriers that women encounter in their career and discuss barriers with clients, which can be considered an advocacy activity. They also argue that advocacy training should focus on workplace issues among women.

Counseling Psychologists Must Do More

Three areas of advocacy that counseling psychologists can contribute to that are linked to women’s experiences in the workplace include discrimination at work, improving work structures to support work-life balance, and fertility and reproductive rights.

Job discrimination is a major obstacle for women in the workforce. Women experience various types of discrimination at work (Blau & Kahn, 2017; Kleven et al., 2019) such as the wage gap, occupational status and segregation, biased performance evaluations, barriers to advancement and leadership, and sexual harassment. Even though men's and women's job roles have become increasingly indistinguishable over the past few years, the salary gap remains a persistent problem and is further magnified across racial and/or ethnic groups. This gap is noticeable among highly skilled and highly compensated workers, and women are not adequately represented in high-paying positions and prestigious occupations (Bertrand, 2018; Blau & Kahn, 2017), including STEM and other scientific fields (Aguinis et al., 2018).

The pay gap and women’s underrepresentation in segments of the workforce are rooted in prejudice against women. Women are perceived to be less competent despite similar qualifications and achievements (Moss-Racusin, 2021; Moss-Racusin et al., 2012), and they experience bias in the evaluation process (Koch et al., 2015). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias limit women’s access to leadership and managerial positions, where they have not reached comparable occupational status as men, even when they have comparable educational levels and occupational attitudes (Castaño et al., 2019; Heilman, 2012). Women of Color also experience gender discrimination but have a qualitatively different experience of it due to the overlapping forms of gender and racial discrimination that are not easily separated. This intersectional form of discrimination manifests through gendered racial microaggressions, such as attacks on natural hair as "unprofessional" and heightened sexualization of women of Color, along with the greater challenges in gaining respect from colleagues (Lewis et al., 2016; Opie & Phillips, 2015). In addition, existing workplace cultures of professionalism and politeness serve to keep employees from speaking out against injustices and label women of Color as "difficult" when they do (Brown & Leung, 2018; Ross, 2013). These experiences of combined racism and sexism in the workplace have adverse impacts on women of Color, including psychological distress as well as job-related burnout and subsequent job turnover for women of Color (Velez et al., 2018). Additionally, women experience the most aversive form of discrimination in the workplace, sexual harassment (Cortina & Areguin, 2021; U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2016). These experiences negatively impact women's job satisfaction, job performance, mental health, and life satisfaction (Reed et al., 2016; Vargas et al., 2020).

Balancing work with other life roles is another systemic barrier that women face in their careers. Family roles impact women’s work experiences, and women experience unique difficulties due to conflicts between career and family. For example, due to disruptions in childcare from the COVID-19 pandemic, mothers were almost three times more likely to stop working compared to fathers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020). Research indicates that parenting and family responsibilities factor into adolescent women’s career decisions (Hanson, 1994; O'Brien et al., 2000). Moreover, bias can play a role in hiring and promotion decisions when employers consider the probability of future childbearing (Duguet et al., 2005; Petit, 2007). Referred to as the “motherhood penalty”, women experience costs to their jobs and careers for having and caring for children (Kleven, Landais, Posch et al., 2019; Kleven, Landais, & Søgaard, 2019). Simultaneously, fathers' careers tend to thrive, seeing a rise in earnings and upward mobility, which is referred to as the “fatherhood bonus” (Hodges & Budig, 2010). Since the passage of laws prohibiting workplace discrimination against women and pregnant women, discrimination has evolved to be more complex and covert (Hebl et al., 2002). Pregnant women report experiencing subtle discrimination in the workplace such as social isolation, negative stereotyping, and negative or rude interpersonal treatment (Jones, 2017). Workplaces are becoming more family-friendly (Bianchi & Milkie, 2010; Kossek & Michel, 2011), yet women workers continue to experience work and family as incompatible and achieving work-family balance is a struggle for many working mothers (Brinton & Oh, 2019; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006; Stone, 2007).

Legalizing abortion and the introduction of oral contraceptives in the 1960s and 1970s impacted women’s career development by allowing women to plan for starting a family in relation to work. The U.S. Supreme Court’s overturning of Roe v. Wade in 2021 limits women’s autonomy for reproductive decisions for the first time in over 50 years. Given the reciprocal effects of work and family, vocational psychologists need to understand the impact of this federal legislation on women’s work and work decisions, especially women from marginalized groups who may not have the resources or access to reproductive medical procedures. Identifying the impact of policies targeting women’s reproductive decisions on career and mental health will be the cornerstone of understanding of women's career paths in the future. Social justice advocacy can be pursued through research on reproductive health legislation and policies, workplace discrimination (i.e., sexism, gendered racism), and psychological well-being of women of childbearing age, which is lacking in vocational psychology (Flores et al., 2021).

Combined with counseling psychology's training in prevention and multicultural psychology, and knowledge in vocational psychology, counseling psychologists can be strong advocates for educational and workplace policies and practices that can improve the work experiences of women. Given the current attacks to state laws related to diversity and inclusion training at all levels in the U.S. educational system as well as limiting women’s reproductive choices, counseling psychologists can get involved in grassroots efforts to influence local school districts and state legislatures on these issues. Counseling psychologists can provide findings from the psychological literature regarding the effects of discrimination on individuals, organizations, and society; anti-discrimination and anti-prejudice trainings; critical consciousness development; and restrictive reproductive health rights on workers’ mental health and career progression.

Effective interventions at the systems levels need to be developed to address gender discrimination in the workplace and workplace programs that support workers with families or planning to start families. Counseling psychology programs and departments are the first place to start advocating for these changes by implementing policies and practices to support graduate students, postdoctoral scholars, and faculty who choose to start families. Even though social justice is a value of counseling psychology, we are not immune to these issues. Counseling psychologists must look within our programs to see how these systems of oppression remain active so that we can support upcoming scholars in this work. Interventions can address discriminatory workplace policies against women and women in caretaking roles, paid maternity leave, leadership development programs for women, reproductive health and childcare coverage benefits, and changes to the organizational work climate. Providing information that challenges gender-based stereotypes can help create an environment in which organizations do not tolerate discrimination (Morgan et al., 2013) and can reduce people's biases (Dasgupta & Asgari, 2004; Kawakami et al., 2000). Additionally, education on diversity can reduce discrimination against marginalized groups (Pendry et al., 2007). Therefore, counseling psychologists should expand training on educating employers and workers on systemic workplace issues that affect women.

Research in Vocational Psychology

An important limitation of vocational psychology research is that it has focused on the work experiences of those individuals with the most privilege in our society (Blustein, 2001; Richardson, 1993). Fouad et al. (2023) point out that women’s career development research within vocational psychology has centered White, cisgender, heterosexual, middle-class women. They call for more empirical attention devoted to the work experiences of women from marginalized groups in society and the workforce and for research that understands women’s experiences in the workplace at the intersections of these identities. In addition, Fouad et al. (2023) note that research on women’s career development is further restricted by the use of measures that are potentially biased to women’s experiences and by the minimal application of longitudinal research designs and intervention research. They indicate that research training can be improved by teaching students to be critical consumers of research, to develop skills that extend beyond traditional research approaches and designs used in vocational psychology research, and to design new studies that address the theoretical, methodological, and statistical limitations of the extant literature base on women and work.

Counseling Psychologists Must Do More

Counseling psychologists rarely apply social justice and socially responsive approaches to research training (Tung et al., 2023) or to producing and disseminating research findings (Buchanan et al., 2021). To make significant strides in addressing the limitations of women’s career research as noted by Fouad et al. (2023), individuals need to make changes in their research, need to attend to contextual and structural variables in vocational research, and account for overlapping forms of oppression that impact women with other marginalized identities. More importantly, structural changes are needed within our training programs and research bodies to allow counseling psychologists to put these changes into effect. Counseling psychologists can’t expect researchers to conduct systems-informed research if they aren’t trained to do it or if institutions (departments, colleges, universities, granting agencies) do not value and reward this work. The structure of academia does not always lend itself towards engaging in this community-based research. To build trust with participants from marginalized communities, a significant amount of time and resources are needed (Jackson et al., 2018; Youn et al., 2019). In the academic landscape that values quantity of publications in high impact journal outlets as well as time restrictions bound by tenure review policies, researchers may not have the time to pursue relationships with communities to conduct this research. In addition, hiring and promotion standards and policies should account for the barriers that scholars from underrepresented groups in higher education, including women and people of Color, encounter in gaining entry into science positions (Kozlowski et al., 2022) as well as in networking, citation counts, and grant funding (Kozlowski et al., 2022; Lerman et al., 2022). Colleges and universities need to rethink the types of research activities that are valued and the requirements for hiring, tenure, and promotion. There should also be rewards for the dissemination of research outside of scholarly journals.

Tung et al. (2023) provide specific examples that faculty, program leaders, and trainees can implement to promote socially responsive research training. These examples can be integrated within counseling psychology training programs to promote socially responsive research on women’s career development. For example, counseling psychology faculty who are teaching research methods courses could cover a range of methodologies that extend beyond the traditional quantitative approaches, such as qualitative, longitudinal, mixed-methods and community-based approaches. In addition, instructors can include exemplar research studies for demonstrating these various research designs that have focused on women from marginalized groups and address questions related to women’s work or career experiences. Editors of vocational psychology journals can set expectations for authors to address how they applied socially responsive strategies across all stages of their research projects. Professional journals should publish more diverse research methodology, such as qualitative research and community-based research. In essence, counseling psychologists must do a better job as a field to provide the support and training for trainees to develop socially responsive research competencies, the rewards for researchers to implement socially responsive research approaches in their research, and the availability of mainstream professional outlets that publish socially responsive research studies.

Conclusion

Given the systemic and societal obstacles women face in work settings that we and Fouad et al. (2023) have outlined, counseling psychologists must do more to create better systems that support women’s work experiences. They can start by focusing on what they can do to develop and support women faculty in counseling psychology with interests in vocational issues. Imagine the impact that can be made if efforts are put towards a collective and systemic improvement to promoting the careers of women researchers in our field and adding a systemic focus on counseling psychology training.

Despite the challenges to transform vocational psychology training at the systemic level, the costs are too high to not heed the calls to change. The social relevance of counseling psychology work is weakened when our training, research, and practice primarily focus on individuals and overlook the role of systems in restricting women’s career experiences. In turn, empirically based interventions will be inadequate to support diverse groups of women that are represented in the work force today and facing multiple, intersectional systems of oppression. Continued focus on individual level interventions, at the exclusion of structural interventions, is akin to patching a leaky pipe with scotch tape. Without understanding and tackling the root of the issues that limit the advancement of scholarship on women’s career development, the impact of our work and long-term change will be limited. Let’s do more.

ORCID iD

Lisa Y. Flores https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4585-0952

Footnotes

Author Biographies

Lisa Y. Flores, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Psychological Sciences at the University of Missouri. Her research interests are in the career development of women and Latinx and the integration of Latinx immigrants in rural communities. She has published over 120 journal articles and book chapters, presented over 250 conference presentations, and has been principal investigator and co-principal investigator on grants from NSF, USDA, and US Department of Education. She served as editor of the Journal of Career Development from 2005–2022 and is currently serving as Legacies and Traditions Forum editor of The Counseling Psychologist (2019–present) and associate editor of the Journal of Counseling Psychology (2023–present). She is a fellow of the American Psychological Association (Divisions 17, 35, 45).

Melinda Troyka, MA, is a graduate student at the University of Missouri–Columbia, and will be starting at Teachers College, Columbia University as a counseling psychology doctoral student in the Fall of 2023. Her research interests include the development of multicultural competencies, career development, and sense of belonging for marginalized groups.

Jinkoo Lee, MA, is a doctoral student in the Department of Psychological Sciences at the University of Missouri. He received his master’s degree in counseling psychology at the Yonsei University in South Korea. His work focuses on career development among marginalized groups as well as economic and racial justice.

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