Using concepts grounded in situated cognition theory and a cognitive apprenticeship model, this article examines an alternative approach for the preparation of educational administrators. First, the traditional premises undergirding the development of educational administration programs and the history of professional knowledge creation and transmission are explored and then reframed and redefined through the conceptual lens of cognitive learning theory. These traditional premises are then integrated with concepts of situated cogntition and cognitive apprenticeship to yield a new model for professional preparation of educational administrators. The concepts of reflective practice, professional expertise, and critical theory for preparatory programs are incorporated as vital compontents of this new model. Finally, the implications of the proposed model and its application to educational administration preparation courses and programs are explored.
References
1.
Argyris, C. , & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
2.
Anderson, R. C. , & Armbruster, B. B. (1990). Some maxims for learning and instruction. Teachers College Record, 9, 396-408.
3.
Benner, P. (1984). From novice to expert: Excellence and power in clinical nursing practice. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
4.
Blumberg, A. (1989). School administration as a craft: Foundation of practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
5.
Bransford, J. D. , & Vye, N. J. (1989). A perspective on cognitive research and its implications for instruction. In L. B. Resnick & L. E. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research (1989 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, pp. 173-205). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
6.
Bridges, E. (1982). Research on the school adminsitrator: The state of the art, 1967-1980. Educational Administration Quarterly, 18(3), 12-33.
7.
Brown, J. S. , Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989a). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
8.
Brown, J. S. , Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989b). Debating the situation: A rejoinder to Palincsar and Wineburg. Educational Researcher, 19(4), 10-12.
9.
Brubacker, J. S. , & Rudy, W. (1968). Higher education in transition. New York: Harper & Row.
10.
Campbell, R. F. , Fleming, T., Newell, L. J., & Bennion, J. W. (1987). A history of thought and practice in educational administration. New York: Teachers College Press.
11.
Cervero, R. M. (1988). Effective continuing education for professionals. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
12.
Cervero, R. M. (1989, March). Professional practice, learning and continuing education: An integrated perspective. Invited address presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
13.
Chi, M.T.H. , Glaser, R., & Farr, M. J. (1988). The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
14.
Clifford, G. J. (1986). The formative years of schools of education in America: Afive-institution analysis. American Journal of Education, 94, 427-446.
15.
Clifford, G. J. , & Guthrie, J. W. (1988). Ed school: A brief for professional education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
16.
Collins, A. , Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453-494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
17.
Danforth Foundation . (1989). Searching for the right reforms. St. Louis, MO: Author.
18.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier.
19.
Elshout, J. J. (1987). Problem solving and education. In E. DeCorte, H. Lodewijks, R. Parmentier, & P. Span (Eds.), Learning and instruction: European research in an international cone A (vbl. 1, pp. 259-337). Oxford: Pergamon.
20.
Fosnot, C. T. (1989). Empowering teachers, empowering learners: A constructivist approach for teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.
21.
Getzels, J. W. (1979). Problem-finding and research in educational administration. In G. L. Immegart & W. L. Boyd (Eds.), Problem-finding in educational administration (pp. 5-22). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
22.
Glaser, R. (1987). Thoughts on expertise. In C. Schooler & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Cognitive functioning and social structure over the life course (pp. 81-94). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
23.
Glazer, N. (1974). The schools of the minor professions. Minerva, 12, 346-363.
24.
Greenfield, P. M. (1984). A theory of the teacher in the learning activities of everyday life. In B. Rogoff &J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its development in social context (pp. 117-138). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
25.
Griffiths, D. E. (1988). Education administration: Reform PDQ or RIP (Occasional paper #8312). Tempe, AZ: University Council for Educational Administration.
26.
Grimmett, P. P. (1988). The nature of reflection and Schon's conception in perspective. In P. P. Grimmett & G. L. Erickson (Eds.), Reflection in teacher education (pp. 5-15). New York: Teachers College Press.
27.
Havelock, R. G. (1973). The change agent's guide to innovation in education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publication.
28.
Hawley, W. D. (1988). Universities and improvement of school management. In D. E. Griffiths, R. T. Stout, & P. B. Forsyth (Eds.), Leaders for America's schools (pp. 82-88). Berkeley: McCutchan.
29.
Holland, D. , & Quinn, N. (Eds.). (1987). Cultural models in language and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30.
Hyman, H. H. , & Wright, C. R. (1971). Evaluating social action programs. In F. G. Caro (Ed.), Readings in evaluative research (pp. 185-220). New York: Russell Sage.
31.
Johnson, D. W. , & Johnson, R. (1987a). Learning together and alone. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
32.
Johnson, D. W. , & Johnson, R. (1987b). A meta-analysis of cooperative, competitive and individualistic goal structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
33.
Johnson, W. R. (1978). Schooled lawyers: A study in the clash of professional cultures. New York: New York University Press.
34.
Lampert, M. (1986). Knowing, doing and teaching multiplication. Cognition and Instruction, 3(4), 305-342.
35.
Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture in everyday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
36.
Lave, J. , Murtaugh, M., & de la Rocha, 0. (1984). The dialectic of arithmetic in grocery shopping. In B. Rogoff & J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its development in social context (pp. 67-94). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
37.
Levin, J. A. (1982). Microcomputers communication network for education. Quarterly News-letter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 4, 333-369.
38.
National Commission on Excellence in Education Administration. (1987). Leaders for America 's schools. Tempe, AZ: University Council for Educational Administration.
39.
National Policy Board for Educational Administration . (1989). Improving the preparation of school administrators: An agenda for reform. Charlottesville, VA: Author.
40.
Palincsar, A. S. (1989). Less charted waters. Educational Researcher, 18(4), 5-7.
41.
Palincsar, A. S. , & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and monitoring methods. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117-175.
42.
Palincsar, A. S. , & Brown, A. L. (1989). Instruction for self-regulated reading. In L. B. Resnick & L. E. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research (1989 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, pp. 19-39). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
43.
Peterson, P. L. , Clark, C. M., & Dickson, W. P. (1990). Educational psychology as a foundation in teacher education: Reforming an old notion. Teachers College Record, 91, 322-346.
44.
Quinn, N. , & Holland, D. (1987). Culture and cognition. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought (pp. 3-40). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
45.
Reader, W. J. (1966). Professional men: The rise of the professional classes in nineteenth-century England. New York: Basic Books.
46.
Resnick, L. B. (1987a). Education and learning to think. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
47.
Resnick, L. B. (1987b). Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 13-20.
48.
Rogoff, B. , & Gardner, W. (1984). Adult guidance of cognitive development. In B. Rogoff & J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its development in social context (pp. 95-116). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
49.
Rogoff, B. , & Lave J. (Eds.). (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
50.
Rossmiller, R. A. (1986). Some contemporary trends and their implications for the preparation of educational administrators. UCEA Review, 27(1), 2-3.
51.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985). Mathematical problem solving. New York: Academic Press.
52.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1989). Teaching mathematical thinking and problem solving. In L. B. Resnick & L. E. Klopfer (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research (1989 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, pp. 88-103). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
53.
Schooler, C. , & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.). (1987). Cognitive functioning and social structure over the life course. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
54.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
55.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
56.
Scribner, S. (1984). Studying working intelligence. In B. Rogoff & J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its development in social context (pp. 9-40). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
57.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: A conception of teacher knowledge. American Educator, 10(1), 9-15.
58.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.
59.
Shulman, L. S. (1990). Reconnecting foundations to the substance of teacher education. Teachers College Record, 91, 300-310.
60.
Soltis, J. F. (1990). A reconceptualization of educational foundations. Teachers College Record, 91, 311-321.
61.
Starr, P. (1982). The social transformation of American medicine. New York: Basic Books.
62.
Stemnberg, R. J. (1986). All's well that ends well, but it's a sad tale that begins at the end: A reply to Glaser. American Psychologist, 40, 571-573.
63.
Tyack, D. B. , & Hansot, E. (1982). Managers of virtue: Public school leadership in America, 1820-1980. New York: Basic Books.
64.
Vollmer, H. M. , & Miles, D. L. (Eds.). (1966). Professionalization. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
65.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
66.
West, C. K. , Farmer, J. A., & Wolff, P. M. (in press). Instructional design: Implications from cognitive science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
67.
Wineburg, S. S. (1989). Remembrance of theories past. Educational Researcher, 18(4), 7-10.
