Adjusting Beginning Reading Intervention Based on Student Performance: An Experimental Evaluation

Abstract

This experimental study evaluated a model in which the delivery of a supplemental beginning reading intervention was adjusted based on student performance. Kindergarten students identified as at risk for reading difficulties were assigned to one of two versions of the Early Reading Intervention (ERI; Pearson/Scott Foresman, 2004). Students assigned to the experimental condition received the intervention with systematic adjustments based on student performance. Students in the comparison condition received the same intervention without instructional modifications. The experimental group outperformed the comparison group on all posttest measures at the end of kindergarten. Follow-up analyses at the end of first grade revealed a continued advantage for the experimental group. Findings suggest that systematically adjusting intervention support in response to student performance may be feasible and efficacious.

References

Adams

M. J.

Foorman

B. R.

Lundberg

Beeler

(1998). Phonemic awareness in young children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Benjamini

Hochberg

(1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Methodological), 57, 289–300.

Beretvas

S. N.

(2008). Cross-classified random effects models. In O'Connell

A. A.

McCoach

Betsy D.

(Eds.), Multilevel modeling of educational data (pp. 161–197). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Bloom

H. S.

Richburg-Hayes

Black

A. R.

(2007). Using covariates to improve precision for studies that randomize schools to evaluate educational interventions. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 29, 30–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0162373707299550.

Bradley

Danielson

Doolittle

(2005). Response to intervention. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 485–486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00222194050380060201.

Cook

T. D.

(2005). Emergent principles for the design, implementation, and analysis of cluster-based experiments in social science. The Annuals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 599, 176–198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716205275738.

Denton

C. A.

Hocker

J. L.

(2006). Responsive reading instruction: Flexible intervention for struggling readers in the early grades. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Denton

C. A.

Kethley

Nimon

Kurz

Mathes

P. G.

Shin

T. B.

Shih

(2010). Effectiveness of a supplemental early reading intervention scaled up in multiple schools. Exceptional Children, 76, 394–416.

Dunn

L. M.

Dunn

L. M.

(1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Third Edition (PPVT-III). Bloomington, MN: Pearson Assessments.

10.

Fuchs

L. S.

Fuchs

(2009). On the importance of a unified model of responsiveness to intervention. Child Development Perspectives, 3, 41–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00074.x.

11.

Gersten

Compton

Connor

C. M.

Dimino

Santoro

Linan-Thompson

Tilly

W. D.

(2009). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to Intervention and multitier intervention for reading in the primary grades. (NCEE 2009–4045). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/publications/practiceguides/.

12.

Good

R. H.

Kaminski

R. A.

(Eds.). (2002). Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (6th ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement.

13.

Gunn

Biglan

Smolkowski

Ary

(2000). The efficacy of supplemental instruction in decoding skills for Hispanic and Non-Hispanic students in early elementary school. The Journal of Special Education, 34, 90–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002246690003400204.

14.

Hedges

L. V.

(2007). Effect sizes in cluster-randomized designs. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 32, 341–370. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/1076998606298043.

15.

Hox

(2002). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

16.

Larsen

S. C.

Hammill

D. D.

Moats

L. C.

(2005). Test of Written Spelling (4th ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

17.

Lembke

E. S.

McMaster

K. L.

Stecker

P. M.

(2010). The prevention science of reading research within a response-to-intervention model. Psychology in Schools, 47, 22–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pits.20449.

18.

Luo

Kwok

(2009). The impacts of ignoring a crossed factor in analyzing cross-classified data. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44, 182–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00273170902794214.

19.

Makar

B. W.

(1995). Primary phonics. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.

20.

Mellard

McKnight

Jordan

(2010). RTI tier structures and instructional intensity. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25, 217–225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2010.00319.x.

21.

Meyers

J. L.

Beretvas

S. N.

(2006). The impact of inappropriate modeling of cross-classified data structures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 41, 473–497. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr4104_3.

22.

National Center on Response to Intervention. (2010, March). Essential components of RTI — A closer look at response to intervention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Response to Intervention. Retrieved from http://www.rti4success.org/resourcetype/essential-components-rti-closer-look-response-intervention.

23.

Pearson/Scott Foresman. (2004). Scott Foresman sidewalks: Early reading intervention. Glenview, IL: Author.

24.

Pinnell & Fountas. (2006). Phonics lessons. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

25.

Raudenbush

S. W.

Bryk

A. S.

(2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

26.

Raudenbush

S. W.

Bryk

A. S.

Cheong

Congdon

(2004). HLM 6: Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software.

27.

Samuels

C. A.

(2011). An instructional approach expands its reach. Education Week, 30(22), 2–5. Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2011/03/02/22rti-overview.h30.html?qs=an+instructional+approach+expands+its+reach.

28.

Simmons

D. C.

Coyne

M. D.

Hagan-Burke

Kwok

Simmons

Johnson

Crevecoeur

Y. C.

(2011). Effects of supplemental reading interventions in authentic contexts: A comparison of kindergarteners' response. Exceptional Children, 77, 207–228.

29.

Torgesen

J. K.

Wagner

R. K.

Rashotte

C. A.

Rose

Lindamood

Conway

Garvan

(1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities: Group and individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579–593. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.91.4.579.

30.

Vadasy

P. F.

Sanders

E. A.

Peyton

J. A.

(2006). Code-oriented instruction for kindergarten students at risk for reading difficulties: A randomized field trial with paraeducator implementers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 508–528. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.508.

31.

Vellutino

F. R.

Scanlon

D. M.

Small

Fanuele

D. P.

(2006). Response to intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between children with and without reading disabilities: Evidence for the role of kindergarten and first-grade interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 157–169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390020401.

32.

Wagner

R. K.

Torgesen

J. K.

Rashotte

C. A.

(1999). Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

33.

Wanzek

Vaughn

(2007). Research-based implications from extensive early reading interventions. School Psychology Review, 36, 541–561.

34.

What Works Clearinghouse. (2008). Procedures and standards handbook, version 2.0. [Electronic version]. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/pdf/wwc_procedures_v2_standards_handbook.pdf.

35.

Woodcock

R. W.

(1987/1998). Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised/Normative Update. Bloomington, MN: Pearson Assessments.