Abstract
There has been an increase in the activities of environmental groups in recent years. Based on the review of forty-five recent scholarly articles on environmental activism, this article focuses on trends in the literature in terms of conceptualization, themes, and directions, as well as it suggests agendas for future research. The article notes climate justice as a key concern for the direction of scholarship on the subject, and covers the themes of the emergence of Green political parties, radical environmentalism, ecological citizenship, violence and non-violence, and social conflict.
Introduction
Social movements seek to influence views on environmental issues and put pressure on policymakers in a range of related areas. But alongside their specific goals, they also often strive to create space for genuine deliberation about the need for societal transformation (Holdo, 2019: 595).
The statement above describes the role that environmental activist groups generally perform in society: They aim to influence views and policymakers on environmental problems at the same time as they participate in the discourse of public interest issues that have implications for the democratic transformation of society, encouraging genuine deliberations about progress in society (Holdo, 2019). It has even been suggested in some quarters that ecological concerns are already provoking struggles that could transform social, economic, and political systems. A growing body of literature has been produced about environmental activism due to the emergence and development of the global Green movement, yet there is a dearth of articles that summarize the themes, direction, or future of this work. Based on a review of 45 articles written by experts in the field, this article addresses recent trends in scholarly production on environmental activism.
Definition of Environmental Activism
Environmental activism refers to the activities of individuals and social movements aimed at protecting the environment (Holdo, 2019). As these actors are concerned with unresolved environmental problems and the risks they pose, they seek to influence public views and policymakers to resolve such problems in the overall interest of society, effecting change through policy and shifts in government and industry behavior. Sinclair-Chapman and Targ (2019) describe environmental activism as fusion politics. This refers to the coming together of diverse groups such as youth, racial minorities, women, LGBT activists, teachers, and union members to address common concerns such as injustice, inequality, poor wages, affordable healthcare, immigrant rights, environmental injustice, and women’s reproductive rights. This integrative outlook on environmental activism points to the connection between environmental problems and other aspects of life in society. Environmental activism, then, can be seen as a political or transformational use of power in society (Choudry, 2020), similar to efforts undertaken in response to issues such as quality of life, access to justice, and quality of public services. This form of activism often features underprivileged actors in various socio-economic settings who work together to overcome their precarious circumstances with the help of governmental agencies. Ganz and Soulen (2019) suggest that a segment of environmental social movements can be elite-driven as well, through privileged access to policymaking. In legislative public hearings, for instance, they contribute by sharing their expert knowledge.
Themes
Theme 1: The Linkage between Social Movements and Parties
Environmental activism contributes to democracy, especially at the grassroots level. This argument has been advanced by many scholars, including Rudig and Sajuria (2019) in their comparative analysis of Green Party members and grassroots democracy, which found that social movement-oriented, pacifist, left-wing membership is most committed to grassroots democracy. They argue that support for grassroots democracy is stronger in Latin Europe and Greece, but weaker in established parties with governmental power. In a similar vein, Blings (2020) argues that niche parties and social movements play a crucial role in programmatic alignment and party success. Three mechanisms – namely, electoral pressure, grassroots linkage, and elite orientation – contribute to programmatic alignment. Blings further contends that movements help niche parties to maintain core issues, strengthen issue-ownership, and secure allies in civil society.
In assessing the political roots of domestic environmental sabotage, Farrer and Klein (2017) show that environmental sabotage becomes more frequent when environmentalist niche parties struggle to win seats in a constituency. This phenomenon is evident when Green Party candidates fail to win even minor offices, even when controlling for other environmentalist successes. These findings have implications for environmental politics, social movements, democracy, and political violence in the US and around the world. It is important to note that even when Green parties do win some political positions, there is no guarantee that this leads to the enactment of policies such as those aimed at reducing greenhouses gases by limiting the production of hydrocarbons (O’Brien, 2017). O’Brien’s analysis implies that there have been failings in the case of New Zealand, where protest group demands for pollution reduction and job creation in Aotearoa New Zealand have resulted in limited party effects.
Theme 2: Radical Environmentalism
Recent analysis of environmental activist radicalism is rooted in long-term political trends. Hysing et al. (2016), examine Green radicalism among local environmental officials in Sweden, focusing on three aspects: Green ethics, Green institutional change, and Green activism. Their survey data revealed these dimensions to be present among officials, with no negative link between radicalism and influence, leading the authors to suggest further studies be carried out on the role of public administration in promoting radical Green reforms. In contrast to this potentially hopeful outlook, Stahel’s (2016) less than sanguine assessment of the global environmental movement posits that there are insufficient radical elements to orchestrate change in global economic and social systems that would address climate change and social conflict. Despite different views on the matter, there does seem to be a consensus in the literature that any significant global policy results brought about by radical environmentalism would not be likely to materialize for another several years.
Theme 3: Ecological Citizenship
The notion of ecological citizenship, defined as the ways that citizens contribute to the development of sustainable cities, is an important theme in recent literature. In studying German and Israeli cities, Barak (2020) focuses on how citizens promote sustainable urban development and their goals and motivations. The study reveals that cities are a significant political arena for ecological citizenship, with distinct patterns of political participation based on a city’s identity. Notwithstanding, the author holds that while ecological citizenship conveys a measure of obligation and responsibility on the part of citizens, it lacks depth at the level of analysis and praxis. In their investigation of socio-ecological coalitions in the US, Hultgren and Stevis (2020) concentrate on environmentalist interactions with labor unions and immigrant rights organizations. The authors outline an interpretive scheme that analyzes and compares the engagements between social entities seeking to bridge social and environmental politics so as to make sense of the political ideologies around which socio-ecological engagements coalesce or fracture. Configurations of political ideology and environmentalism are also of interest to Agarin and Grivins (2016), who note that environmental groups have become more visible in the Baltic region following the collapse of communism. Similarly, Manolova (2019) explores the development of the Bulgarian "Green" movement from the 1980s to present day, focusing on its ideological embedding within discourses of glasnost, humanism, and international solidarity. Overall, ecological citizenship may be understood in terms of responsible involvement of city-based elites in promoting sustainable urban development.
Theme 4: Violence and Non-Violence
The issue of strategic use of non-violence is a critical component in the characterization of social movements. As mentioned above, Farrer and Klein (2017) note that environmental sabotage becomes more frequent when environmentalist niche parties struggle to win seats in a constituency. In the case of the Iranian Green movement, Orazani and Leidner (2019) show that despite a marked preference for non-violent action among those surveyed, the failure of non-violent protests in 2009 has led a number of individuals within the movement to imagine the possibility of violent action in the future.
Theme 5: Social Conflict
Social conflict is a critical theme for many studies on environmental activism. Christensen (2019) discusses connections between foreign investment in Africa’s mineral resources and social or armed conflict. Mining has a particular effect in regard to social and armed conflict, insofar as the probability of protests or riots increases (roughly doubling) after mining starts, but without a rise in rebel activity. Instead, the probability of social conflict increases alongside exogenous increases in world commodity prices. The issue of climate change also has a relationship with social conflicts, to the point where the global mass media recognizes social and environmental threats as contributing factors to conflicts on both local and international levels (Stahel, 2016).
Directions in Research on Environmental Activism
The intensity and spread of research in these themes differ along regional lines even though many environmental problems are fundamentally international. The focus on Green movements and policy is more visible in the West, and especially in Europe; but Europe, Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and North America have all seen increased analysis of public reactions against climate change (Dorman & Ciplet, 2022). A study by Brown and Spiegel (2019) explores the cultural politics of coal and climate justice in the energy transition, highlighting the tensions between coal and development. Social movements oppose the construction of coal mines, power plants, and other infrastructure projects because, in their eyes, climate change is a matter of racial, gender, and economic justice. Other ethnic geographies of activism, such as among Latinos for instance (Liang, 2018), have been plagued with deteriorating policy, decreased political representation, and the lack of execution of environmental policy. Using a statewide, block-group-level sample, the study also looks at how immigration policies affect environmental regulations produced by state agencies for communities with high Latino populations.
Persistent environmental activism in Israel and Palestine has gained more scholarly interest (McKee, 2018). McKee clarifies the limitations of environmental framing by examining movements in Palestine and Israel. The author looks at the political and cultural backgrounds of activists in both nations, concentrating on their difficulties in formulating initiatives that integrate ecological, financial, and social concerns. An "eco-mosque" and a Jordan River restoration project are also examined by the author, arguing that Israel has deterritorialized environmental concerns and stifled political movements. What this means in terms of the direction of research is that culture is becoming a significant element in the analysis of environmental activism.
The articles consulted for this review suggest that while current research on environmental activism is specifically based on the nature of environmental problems, scholars are increasingly showing interest in different aspects of the subject, including issue framing, actors, and policy outcomes at the local, sub-national, and global levels. Environmental politics more broadly is also defined in large part by issue framing and actors. Finally, there appears to be a growing interest in environmental democracy as environmental issues become a highly contested policy terrain, with policy debates taking place among both state and non-state authorities.
Another direction the research is taking concerns the mobilization of nation-states in the global environmental movement (Laux, 2021). This angle of analysis reinforces the characterization of environmental social movements in terms of membership. It is important to note that professional or traditional non-governmental organizations involved in environmental activism have different orientations and can further be divided into radical and conservative groups (Romano & Highby, 2018); the former are more sincere than the latter when it comes to honest acknowledgement of issues and their solutions.
Focus is also turning on actors in movements, conceptualization, and definition of problems. Tripp (2018) for instance, examines different participants in the environmental movement, concentrating on public and private modes of engagement. Using data from the 2010 US General Social Survey and the International Social Survey Program, the author identifies four classes of participants in the environmental movement: non-participators, those engaged in more organizationally-based activities, those engaged in Green lifestyles, and high-intensity participants. While there is no explicit mention of ideology, it remains a key element for differentiation within these categories.
Recent research also points to the intersection of environmental activism, violent conflict, state-civil society relations, gender, and youth. Sempertugui (2021), for example, explores ecofeminism and indigenous women’s activism in the Ecuadorian Amazon case, arguing that these variables are intertwined in a countermovement against extractivism. In a similar vein, Bertuzzi (2019) explores political generations, innovative youth activism, and the permanence of collective actors in the Italian environmental movement(s).
Australia, the United States, China, and others have been implicated in the analysis of the broader issues, especially in the context of new environmentalisms (Schlosberg & Coles, 2016) – a term used to describe the trend toward mobilizing collective or public power to address environmental concerns regarding recent developments in technology. Schlosberg and Coles analyze the shift to a more sustainable materialism using three frameworks: post-materialism, Michel Foucault’s governmentality and biopolitics, and a new ethos around vibrant and sustainable materialism with an explicit recognition of human immersion in non-human natural systems.
The Future of Environmental Activism and Research
The future of the environmental movement will be shaped by several factors, including the changing landscape of environmental challenges, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, resource depletion, and pollution. As these challenges evolve, technological advancements will also serve as catalysts for change with the potential to revolutionize environmental movements. Other significant factor in shaping the environmental movement in the years to come include shifting societal values, behavioral change, and new partnerships and collaboration between actors. With all of these anticipated developments, new research avenues will emerge, requiring multidimensional analyses, innovative methodologies, collaborative frameworks, and transdisciplinary, holistic approaches in order to understand the field’s increasing complexity. Understanding how ecological, social, economic, and political factors relate is crucial for effective research and policy interventions. Future research will also need to be able to bridge the gap between theory and practice, as it is imperative that research findings be translated into actionable knowledge that can inform policy decisions, influence decision-making processes, and help shape real-world outcomes.
Activities and research related to environmental movements will doubtless continue to focus on how environmental problems affect communities’ daily lives. While environmental challenges are essentially global in nature, analysis of local issues will help to determine the environmental impact of urban, regional, and state authorities, as well as of extractive industries.
Research will need to stay abreast of the evolving strategies and tactics adopted by environmental movements (Rambaree, 2020; Kidwell, 2020), focusing on how activists collaborate across borders, share knowledge, and influence global decision-making processes. A significant part of this work will involve examining how activists achieve successful campaigns, the impact of direct action, civil disobedience, and non-violent protest, as well as the use of digital platforms and social media for mobilization and advocacy (Farrier & Klein, 2017; Sempertegui, 2021; Foos, 2021). Analyses of collaboration and networking should look to incorporate diverse stakeholders at various levels, and especially the dynamics of partnerships between environmental organizations, grassroots movements, indigenous communities, and other social justice groups in what the literature has already identified as fusion politics. It will be important to evaluate the effectiveness of collaboration models and the role of networks in facilitating collective action, which will, in turn, increasingly need to be explored through the lens of transnational activism, as environmental issues transcend national boundaries (Harris, 2019).
Considering these growing activities within new environmental movements, digital activism and online spaces will be important to future research. There will be much to explore in the impact of social media platforms, digital storytelling, online petitions, and crowdfunding in mobilizing support and raising awareness. Research may also explore the potential risks and challenges associated with online activism, such as surveillance and censorship (Deem, 2019; Rigid, 2020).
Research concerning how environmental issues are framed and communicated should continue to focus on impact and framing techniques, strategies, and the use of violent and non-violent rhetoric. There is a likelihood that future research will continue to look at how issues such as food insecurity and the nature of the global capitalist order contribute to environmental movement issue framing (Hensebgerth & Lu, 2019; Hultgren & Stevis, 2020; Thompson et al., 2020).
The issue of the link between movements and the electoral and policy value of Green parties in Europe will continue to attract researchers’ attention. It should be noted, however, that such analysis is still sorely lacking in African contexts. Nonetheless, studies will continue to be conducted on how communities are reacting to the impact of extraction of natural resources such as oil and minerals (Biedenkope et al., 2019; Christensen, 2019; Spiegel, 2019).
Conclusion
This article has foregrounded the themes of the formation of Green political parties, radical environmentalism, ecological citizenship, violence and non-violence, and social conflict. The essay points to climate justice as a major issue around the world and notes an increased interest in the establishment of Green parties, particularly in Europe. It is worth noting that Africa has been largely excluded from analyses where questions of Global North-South equity have shaped environmental debates. The literature reveals that the growing impact of environmental groups’ efforts in recent years has shaped scholarly agendas and conclusions. These trends suggest that in the near future, research on environmental activism will further delve into questions of violence/non-violence, digital activism, issue-framing, and the tensions between Global North and Global South in international environmental policy.