Standing on the Shoulders of Giants? Revisiting Ad Gentes and Contemporary Debates in Mission Theology in the Light of 20th Century Pre-Conciliar Theology of Mission

The Christological and Trinitarian Foundations of Mission

The idea that Christ’s missionary mandate to the disciples, and therefore to the entire Church, serves as a foundation of the Church’s mission can be found in both pre-conciliar and conciliar documents. In the pre-conciliar documents, popes consistently remind the Church of this mandate. ⁸ So, for instance, in the very first lines of MI, Benedict XV recalls that: ‘Before He returned to His Father, Our Lord Jesus Christ addressed to His disciples the words: “Go into the whole world and preach the gospel to all creation.”’ ⁹ The pre-conciliar documents highlighted the emerging challenges that needed to be addressed in order for the Church to remain faithful to the command of Jesus. ¹⁰ These challenges included the collapse of European missionary efforts following World War I, the need to establish local clergy in various mission areas, the perceived threats from the emergence of communist governments, and a growing realization that countries once responsible for sending missionaries were possibly becoming mission ‘territories’ themselves. ¹¹ Given the challenges that existed, and without regard for the question of the level of success which might be achieved, the popes recalled Jesus’ command and encouraged the Church to respond. ¹²

The idea that the mandate of Christ serves as a foundation of the Church’s mission is also highlighted in AG. As the deliberations at the council on a missionary document became increasingly guided by bishops and theologians who had first-hand missionary experience throughout the world, especially under the leadership of German theologian Johannes Schütte (1913–71), who at that time was the superior general of the Society of the Divine Word, there was a growing awareness among the council fathers of the continued missionary needs and challenges facing the Church. ¹³ Indeed, Belgian theologian André Seumois (1917–2000) worried that the overly canonical form of the early drafts of the document would inhibit the council from addressing the main problems confronting missionaries. ¹⁴ Therefore, in the document itself, the council fathers recalled Jesus’ mandate with a view to reminding the Church of her obligation to engage in mission. The first sentence of the document mentions the very same passage from the gospel of Mark (16:15) that is referred to in MI and RE. Further, in chapter five of the text, the mandate from Jesus recorded in Matthew’s gospel, which highlights the necessity of ‘making disciples,’ while bringing the message of the gospel to the world, is invoked. The document goes on to state that the Church ‘has an obligation to proclaim the faith and salvation which comes from Christ.’ ¹⁵ However, the council fathers sought to deepen this foundation by developing a more thoroughly Trinitarian foundation of the Church’s mission. ¹⁶

There are, in the pre-conciliar documents, hints that the missionary efforts of the Church flow from the very work that is already being done by God who is active in the hearts of others. So, for instance, MI states: ‘As we have said before, this whole work [that of mission] is a divine work. Only God can enter men’s [and women’s] hearts and illumine their minds with the radiance of truth … The emissary will spend himself in vain unless his Lord helps him as he works.’ ¹⁷ This reflection is augmented by explicit reference to the work of the Spirit in sustaining and strengthening the Church’s missionary work. ¹⁸ The statement in the pre-conciliar documents which most clearly points to the essentially missionary nature of the church is found in FD, where we read: ‘From the beginning holy Church by her very nature has been compelled to spread the Word of God everywhere.’ ¹⁹ However, the document locates the source of the Church’s missionary calling in the command of Christ and not the Trinity. ²⁰

Developing what is articulated in the pre-conciliar documents, AG locates Christ’s mandate of sending the disciples, and thus the foundation of the mission of the Church, in the very life and action of the Trinitarian Persons. In an oft-quoted passage from section two, and one which generated a long-running debate within the council, headed by, among others, council periti Yves Congar (1905–95) ²¹ and Joseph Ratzinger (1927– ), ²² AG defines mission as constitutive of the life of the Church and as flowing from the life of the Trinity: ‘The Church on earth is by its very nature missionary since, according to the plan of the Father, it has its origin in the mission of the Son and the Holy Spirit.’ ²³ AG then proceeds to highlight that it is through ‘fountain-like love’ that the plan of God unfolds, where the Father sends the Son, and the Son and the Father in turn send the Spirit. ²⁴ The Son then sends the Church, commanding her to bring the gospel to all the nations, as she is animated and sustained by the Spirit to carry out this mission. ²⁵ Caught up in the mission of the Son and of the Spirit, the Church is by her very nature missionary. ²⁶ Thus, by emphasizing that the Church’s mission flows from the loving plan of God, and by connecting the mandate of Christ, who sends the Church, with the sending of the Son by the Father, Vatican II develops and deepens the Church’s understanding of the foundations of her mission.

Rethinking the Foundations of Mission

The theology of the foundations of mission articulated in AG has not been without its critics, and the tensions generated are not unrelated to the tensions that existed during the pre-conciliar period. For instance, in 1962, while writing on the development of the theology of mission in the first half of the 20th century, Franciscan missiologist Ronan Hoffman (1921–2004) indicated that, during this period, there were various disagreements as to what exactly these foundations might be. Surveying several opinions, he noted that, for Henri de Lubac (1896–1991), for example, it was necessary that the Church understand her mission as flowing from the mandate of Jesus. ²⁷ Other theologians, such as Alberto Perbal (1884–1971), did not think that founding the Church’s mission in a mandate alone was enough. Perbal, for example, in his Premieres leçons de théologie missionaire, chose to connect the foundation of the Church’s mission to the mission of the Divine Word. ²⁸ So, as Hoffman states, ‘Perbal saw in the mission of the Divine Word into this world the type and cause of every mission in favour of the salvation of souls. Thus, he connected the mission of the Church with that of the Word.’ ²⁹ Finally, still others, such as Dominican Charles Journet (1891–1975), regarded as one of the preeminent speculative missiologists of his time, ³⁰ and Danilo Catarzi (1918–2004), who served as a missionary in Africa, located the foundation of the Church’s mission in the missions of the Trinity itself. ³¹

In the reflection being done on the Church’s theology of mission today, similar tensions to those just identified still exist. On the one hand, Stephen Bevans and Roger Schroeder seem to want to diminish the role that Christ’s mandate plays in founding the Church’s mission. Commenting on the developments found in AG, they state that: ‘Mission [after Vatican II] became … something motivating the very heart of the church, not because some command had been laid upon the faithful, but because by being missionary the church was drawn into the life of the Trinity itself.’ ³² On the other hand, William Frazier, when commenting on the reception of AG in the life of the Church, notes that Paul VI’s Evangelii Nuntiandi (EN) makes no mention of the Trinitarian foundations of mission, and only emphasizes Christ’s mandate. ³³ Commenting on the nature of Paul VI’s document, it is argued that he (Paul VI) was developing another foundation of the Church’s mission, namely, ‘the reign of God,’ which was followed by yet another possible foundation, provided by John Paul II in Redemptoris Missio (RM), namely, the universal, saving work of Jesus Christ. ³⁴

In trying to shed light on some of these tensions, perhaps a helpful perspective can be found in the thought of Matthew Levering. In his discussion of mission, Levering locates the missionary nature of the Church in the life of the Trinity. As he explains, it is accurate to say that the ‘center of mission is the Triune God.’ ³⁵ In this sense, it is through the love of God that the Word is sent into the world by the Father, and through the action of the Holy Spirit, becomes flesh in Jesus Christ. Jesus carries out his mission from the Father and in the Spirit, and, at the appointed time, both he and the Father send the Spirit to enliven the Church to continue the mission of God. ³⁶ However, this understanding of mission is not always self-evident for Christians, such that they often do not understand themselves as called to participate in the mission of the Triune God. Therefore, to highlight ‘the necessity of mission’ for the life of the Church, Levering argues that it is important to maintain the mandate of Christ as a complementary source for the Church’s mission. ³⁷ In this way, both foundations for the Church’s mission are maintained, as is the case in AG.

The Salvation of Souls and the Planting of the Church

There is general agreement in the documents prior to the council that the aims of the Church’s mission center on both the ‘salvation of souls’ and the ‘planting of the Church’ in areas where it is not fully developed. ³⁹ Reflecting much of the theological and ecclesial language of their time, the documents highlight that those who live apart from Christ and his Church live in ‘error’ and in ‘darkness,’ commit the mistake of ‘idolatry,’ and may possibly be heading towards ‘destruction.’ ⁴⁰ The documents state, therefore, that it is the goal of the Church’s mission to shine light in the ‘darkness,’ to correct the ‘errors’ that people espouse, and to defeat the powers of the ‘devil,’ so as to ‘win for Christ as many souls as possible.’ ⁴¹ To accomplish the missionary task of the ‘salvation of souls,’ the documents indicate that it is necessary to extend the boundaries of the Church throughout the entire world by ‘planting the Church.’ In this way, more people will encounter the gifts of the Church, through her structures and through her sacraments, and therefore encounter the ‘saving truth’ of Jesus Christ. ⁴²

As a way to strike a balance between the two competing schools of thought concerning the goals of mission, AG preserves these two aims in the document, though, once again, they are deepened and developed. ⁴³ AG continues to speak of the reality of sin in the world, to acknowledge that some people are living in darkness and in the power of Satan, and that it is the Church’s missionary goal to bring salvation to the whole world, and to work for the salvation of souls. ⁴⁴ To articulate how the Church is related to the salvation of all people, the document describes the Church as the universal sacrament of salvation, i.e., both the sign and effective means of bringing people to share in the love of God, to participate in the life of Christ. ⁴⁵ In order that she might be the universal sacrament of salvation, there is continued emphasis on the need to plant the Church. Though planting of the Church is normally understood as missionary activity conducted in specific geographic areas known as ‘missions,’ it does not seem to be limited to this. ⁴⁶ It can also be the Church engaging in mission anywhere that she is not fully present, e.g., where her structures are not fully developed, or where people do not have sufficient access to her sacramental life. As AG states, the mission of the Church is the process by which ‘the Church makes itself fully present to all men and peoples in order to lead them to the faith, freedom and peace of Christ by the example of its life and teaching, by the sacraments and other means of grace. Its aim is to open up for all men [and women] a free and sure path to full participation in the mystery of Christ.’ ⁴⁷

Social Transformation

Along with the aims of the salvation of souls and the planting of the Church, there exists in the documents prior to the council a growing awareness of the importance of societal transformation as part of the mission of the Church. ⁴⁸ This emphasis begins with the words of Benedict XV in MI with a statement that the missionary recognizes all people, even unbelievers, as ‘God’s children.’ ⁴⁹ Therefore, the missionary cannot be concerned simply with those who are interested in the Church or may become part of the Church. Missionaries must be present to all who live where they are serving. As Pius XI declared somewhat later in RE, missionaries must heal the sick, care for children, build hospitals and schools, and attend to both the poor and the leaders of the community. ⁵⁰ EP and FD highlight that the Church is not just about spiritual work, but must attend to social reform, social prosperity, and social order, all of which are demanded ‘by justice and charity,’ and motivate the Church to promote ‘His Kingdom—the Kingdom of justice, of love, and of peace—throughout all the world.’ ⁵¹ Ultimately, however, most of the documents indicate that the transformation of society should not take precedence over the salvation of souls and the planting of the Church. ⁵²

Much like the documents prior to Vatican II, there is continued emphasis in AG on the fact that the Church is motivated in her missionary life by a concern for societal transformation. This includes the ‘right ordering of social and economic affairs,’ ‘the education of children and young people,’ solidarity with the poor and the sick so as to share ‘their joys and sorrows,’ and a struggle ‘against famine, ignorance and disease,’ so as to ‘bring about better living conditions and … peace in the world.’ ⁵³ Christians are encouraged to engage in these efforts with different groups of people, in both the public and private spheres, who share the same vision of social transformation. They are further called to collaborate with other Christians, ⁵⁴ and even with other non-Christian communities. It may even be the case, as highlighted in AG, that during certain periods of missionary activity, and in different contexts, working towards social transformation may be the only activity in which missionaries can engage. ⁵⁵ However, the emphasis on societal transformation is balanced by the insistence that missionaries, in their work for the transformation of society, should be concerned for people’s salvation, even ‘in those places where they cannot preach Christ in full.’ ⁵⁶ It is important that individuals and communities as a whole act as a leaven, ‘animating and directing the temporal order from within,’ so that, in and through these efforts, when there exists the proper opening for the gospel to be preached, people might be led ‘towards a full reception of Christ.’ ⁵⁷

Rethinking the Aims of the Church’s Mission

Lay Involvement in Mission

Pre-conciliar theology of mission argued for varying, yet increasing, degrees of lay involvement in the Church’s missionary activities. In MI, this is limited primarily to supporting ‘the missions’ by offering prayer, providing vocations, and through financial assistance. ⁸⁰ Seven years later, Pius XI, aware of the growing need that existed in many mission areas, recommended that mission work, such as spreading the gospel and teaching, be shared by all, including trained lay catechists and other lay people. ⁸¹ The importance of lay involvement in the missionary life of the Church was further highlighted in EP, where a history of this involvement was provided, from lay involvement in the Pauline communities to the efforts, in later centuries, of lay men and women of all social spheres to convert those around them, and even to endure martyrdom for the faith. ⁸² Pius XII went on to praise lay people for their efforts in ‘battling beneath the banner of the Gospel’ by ‘sowing the religion of Jesus Christ’ throughout the missions of the Church. ⁸³ Finally, just a few years before the council, John XXIII stated in PP that, for the Church, it is ‘necessary that her work of salvation be carried out equally by all,’ and further, that anyone ‘who deems himself a Christian must know that he is bound by his conscience to the basic, imperative duty of bearing witness to the truth in which he believes and to the grace which has transformed his soul.’ ⁸⁴

In many respects, AG begins precisely where John XXIII had left off in PP. First, AG emphasizes that all of the faithful ought to be united in accomplishing the mission of the Church. ⁸⁵ Since the Church is understood to be missionary by her very nature, all the people of God are called to participate in her mission. ⁸⁶ Secondly, this mission is to be carried out in various ways, depending on the particular hierarchical and charismatic gifts of those involved. ⁸⁷ As a result of debates that took place at the council, the specific role that bishops and missionary congregations play in the mission of the Church was given particular emphasis. ⁸⁸ However, in an attempt to strike a balance between the necessary hierarchical gifts of the Church and the involvement of all her members, AG emphasizes that, although the mission of the Church is ‘one and the same everywhere and in all situations,’ there is a need for sensitivity to differences in circumstances and situations such that the mission of the Church ‘may not always be exercised in the same way.’ ⁸⁹ Third, when reflecting on the work in ‘the missions’ themselves, AG provides ample reflection on the role that the laity must play in carrying out the mission of the Church. Lay people are called to be involved in the social order as ‘leaven’; they are called upon to be catechists and teachers, and invited to fulfill their priestly, prophetic and royal office so that the Church ‘will become a sign of God’s presence in the world.’ ⁹⁰ Ultimately, the laity are called to witness to and proclaim the gospel, in a spirit of dialogue, with all members of the Church and with people of all cultures, so that the Church’s missionary efforts might be accomplished. ⁹¹

The Church’s Approach to Culture

From the earliest days of the Church’s missionary efforts, attempts have been made by Christians to engage with culture, and to discern how the message of the Gospel might be communicated in different cultures. ⁹² However, the Church has not always been sensitive to preserving and acknowledging the goodness of human culture. Certain periods in the Church’s history, especially when missionary efforts were closely linked to colonialism and imperialism, resulted in many horrific experiences, where peoples and cultures were not respected, and where they were even destroyed. ⁹³ Among missiologists today, there is an ever-growing attention to understanding culture, and the Church’s relationship to culture, in the hope that the mistakes of the past will not be repeated. ⁹⁴ In what follows, we will explore the Church’s relationship to culture as it is found in pre-conciliar and conciliar theology of mission.

Looking at the pre-conciliar documents, there is evidence of tension in the Church’s approach to culture. On the one hand, the documents reflect much of the theology of their time, which often led missioners to underestimate the value and goodness of local cultures. ⁹⁵ The documents state that those who do not believe in Christ are a ‘pitiable lot’ and that they are stuck in the ‘darkness of idolatry.’ ⁹⁶ There is also reference to what appears to be the cultural superiority of the Western world compared to the cultures that are often found in ‘the missions.’ ⁹⁷ On the other hand, beginning with MI, there is an insistence that missionary efforts should be concerned with training and equipping local clergy, so that the message of the gospel might be communicated more effectively in the local customs, language, and culture. ⁹⁸ There is also an increase in positive statements concerning the goodness of cultures. The Church, in her missionary efforts, should not destroy anything that is good, just or beautiful in cultures. ⁹⁹ In order to provide evidence that this is the Church’s practice, the documents offer various examples of how the Church, throughout her history, has engaged culture positively, such as by adopting particular philosophies, art, and cultural customs. ¹⁰⁰ John XXIII, building on what was written by his predecessors, and paving the way for Vatican II, declared that the Church does ‘not identify with any one culture,’ and that when the Church encounters in cultures elements of value, such as philosophies or customs, she ‘fosters and supports these labors of the spirit.’ ¹⁰¹ That being said, the pope, in agreement with his predecessor, notes that the Church is called to perfect and purify culture. ¹⁰² All of these efforts are ultimately undertaken so that the Church, in her missionary efforts, might better articulate the truths of the Gospel to humankind. ¹⁰³

Once again, AG, in harmony with the other documents of the council, builds upon, and develops, what was, at least in seminal form, the increasing sensitivity to, and recognition of the value of, cultures and peoples articulated in the pre-conciliar mission documents. ¹⁰⁴ First, it is important to note that, while the language of AG is much more ‘pastoral’ and sensitive, it does distinguish between living by the light and truth of the Gospel, and living without the Gospel. AG states that, through the sacraments, the Church delivers people ‘from the powers of darkness,’ ¹⁰⁵ and that Christ’s mission is to free people from ‘the power of darkness and of Satan.’ ¹⁰⁶ Second, the document recognizes that there may be positive elements found within cultures. ¹⁰⁷ It refers to certain ‘elements of truth and grace’ in culture that may be a ‘secret presence of God.’ ¹⁰⁸ Nevertheless, while recognizing the possibility and even existence of elements of truth and goodness in cultures, the council still indicates the Church’s twofold task in approaching these elements. It is to retain anything that it finds that is good, while purifying those elements within culture which do not meet the standards of the gospel. ¹⁰⁹ Finally, the council calls for further theological reflection so that the Christian faith can be expressed and explained in line with the customs, philosophy, and wisdom of local peoples and cultures. ¹¹⁰

The Church’s Approach to other Religions

Bevans and Schroeder, when commenting on the developments that occurred in Vatican II’s theology of mission, mention the importance of the Church’s new approach to other religions. ¹¹¹ The significance of this development becomes clear when one examines the pre-conciliar language used in reference to non-Christians and the theology that supports that language, as well as the absence of any reference to the positive value that might be found in non-Christian religions.

Concerning the issue of language, the pre-conciliar documents are all quite consistent. The language used shows little or no sensitivity to other religions, implying little recognition of the value of those religions. Those who are not Catholic are referred to as ‘heathens,’ ‘infidels,’ and ‘pagans.’ ¹¹² It is assumed that, without the Church and the light of the gospel, non-Christians will continue struggling in darkness and in error. ¹¹³ The documents do mention that the Church should not turn her heart from any people of good will, and even that the Holy Spirit and the grace of God are actually ‘working in the hearts of the heathen in order to soften and attract them to Himself,’ ¹¹⁴ but this is the farthest that the documents are willing to go as regards any positive reference to non-Christians. ¹¹⁵ In addition to this use of language, and the mentality behind it, there is a lacuna in the documents as regards the recognition of any positive value that non-Christian religions can have in the lives of others.

AG, as well as other documents of the council, especially Nostra Aetate (NA) and LG, represent a significant development in the Church’s approach to non-Christian religions as found in the magisterial documents of the Church. ¹¹⁶ This development can be seen in three main areas.

First, the Church emphasizes that other religions can serve what theologians call a ‘propaedeutic’ function. ¹¹⁷ Other religions are the means by which people ‘seek God in an attempt to touch him and find him,’ and they may contain a ‘secret presence of God.’ Ultimately, they need to be purified and raised to a higher level. ¹¹⁸ In this way, they can prepare people for the reception of the Gospel. ¹¹⁹ The second development is the recognition of the possibility of salvation for non-Christians, accomplished in ways known only to God. ¹²⁰ Finally, the documents exhort the Church in her missionary efforts to partner with people of non-Christian religions while working to reform and reorder society. ¹²¹

These statements, when taken with the further qualifications found in LG and NA, witness to a profound and challenging development in the Church’s theology of mission that was not anticipated in the pre-conciliar documents on mission. ¹²² Even today, this development still constitutes a great challenge for the Church’s theology of mission. ¹²³

Rethinking the Nature of the Church’s Missionary Role