Investigating of epoxy nanocomposites structure and properties that contain both pristine and aminosilane-treated silicon carbide (SiC) particles

Abstract

This article presents a methodology for functionalization of silicon carbide (SiC) through chemical modification using γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and its subsequent dispersion in an epoxy composition. The research revealed that functionalizing SiC particles with γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (SiC_(APTES)) enhanced their chemical compatibility with the epoxy composition, facilitating the dispersion of SiC particles. Furthermore, it was observed that the functionalization of the filler had a profound impact on the structure, curing kinetics, and physical and mechanical properties of epoxy nanocomposites. The addition of SiC_(APTES) into the epoxy composition resulted in a significant reinforcement of the material. Specifically, the flexural stress and flexural modulus of elasticity increased by 179% and 74%, respectively, while the impact strength experienced a remarkable improvement of 462%. Additionally, the tensile strength and tensile modulus of elasticity increased by 83% and 70%, respectively, compared to the epoxy composite without SiC. The application of SiC_(APTES) also played a crucial role in initiating the polymerization process through the involvement of reactive amino groups, leading to a reduction in the initial curing temperature and an amplification of the thermal effects of the polymerization reaction. Moreover, the presence of functionalized SiC significantly influenced the structure of the epoxy composite, thereby contributing to its enhanced strength. In summary, the inclusion of SiC in the epoxy composition not only bolstered the material but also improved its thermal stability.

Keywords

Epoxy oligomer nanofiller silicon carbide modification functionalization γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane physicochemical and mechanical characteristics

Introduction

Epoxy composites are currently used in many industries as protective coatings, matrices for reinforced materials, adhesives, etc. The demand for epoxy composites is explained by their unique set of properties, including high strength, low specific gravity, resistance to aggressive environments, high dielectric properties, ease of use, etc.^1–5

Currently, epoxy nanocomposites are widely used due to the demand for new lighter and stronger materials.^1,6 Nanocomposites are materials consisting of several phases, the dimensions of one of which are less than 100 nm in one of three directions.⁷ The production of nanocomposites by adding nanosized fillers into a polymer matrix allows, with a relatively small filling amount, to significantly improve the characteristics of the resulting composites, creating a material with unique properties.^8–10 Among nano-sized fillers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs)^11,12 and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs),^13,14 graphite,^15,16 graphene and graphene oxides (OG),^17,18 halloysite nanotubes (HNTs),^19,20 nanosized metal particles and their oxides,^8,21 potassium polytitanates,^22–24 nanodiamonds,^25,26 and silicon carbide are widely used (SiC).^27–29

The addition of nanosized particles into a polymer matrix is complicated by their tendency to form agglomerates. There are several main methods for improving the dispersion of nanoparticles in the matrix: mixing solutions, ultrasonic homogenization, shear mixing, etc. Bansal et al.³⁰ added 0.25 wt % CNTs in order to study the effect of a small amount of CNTs on physico-mechanical properties of the resulting nanocomposites. The addition of nanoparticles was carried out by mixing solutions; CNTs were distributed in acetone, after which the resulting solution was mixed with an epoxy matrix on a magnetic stirrer; at the next stage, acetone was removed from the mixture using heating.

Filling the epoxy matrix with a small amount of CNTs made it possible to increase the elastic modulus by 37% and hardness by 16%. In work,¹⁷ the addition of 0.3 vol % thermally reduced graphene oxide results in an increase of impact strength, tensile failure stress and tensile elastic modulus by 54%, 34 and 56%, respectively. A significant increase in the glass transition temperature by 39°C and the dynamic modulus of elasticity (storage modulus) by 55% were noted, which led to an increase in cross-link density and polymer efficiency coefficient. Samsudin et al.³¹ used MWCNTs, graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and SiC particles to modify the epoxy composition. The addition of up to 5 vol% MWCNTs, GNPs and SiC made it possible to increase the composites thermal conductivity by 100%, 80% and 40%, respectively, which is explained by the formation of a three-dimensional thermal conductive network inside the composite. The authors managed to obtain the highest compressive strength by adding MWCNTs in an amount of 4 vol%, increasing it by 266%, which is explained by the most optimal distribution of nanoparticles in the volume of the composite, as a result, the risks of overstress formation and, as a consequence, premature failure of the sample are reduced. The method of functionalizing the surface of nanoparticles with various chemically active substances capable of interacting with the polymer matrix has become widespread.

Functionalization of the surface of nanoparticles is carried out by various methods, for example, in³², ozonation was used to graft tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) onto the surface of nanodiamonds, which leads to an increase in the fracture resistance and the composite thermal conductivity by 121% and 34%, respectively, when adding 0.5 wt%. Fang et al.³³ used the self-assembly method to graft OG piperazine (PiP) and phytic acid (PA) onto the surface, which made it possible to increase storage modulus by improving interfacial interaction and the composites thermal stability by reducing the peak heat release rate by 42% and the total heat release by 22%. The authors explain the decrease in flammability by the synergistic effect of functionalizing agents, since PiP dilutes flammable gases in the combustion zone, and PA stimulates coke formation, thus allowing to create a barrier layer.

Among the nano-sized fillers presented above, silicon carbides attract special attention, so as a result of the addition of SiC into epoxy composites, a set of properties improves: strength and thermal conductivity increase, and dielectric constant decreases.^34–36

In this study, the effects of aminofunctionalized silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles on the curing kinetics, structure, mechanical characteristics and heat resistance of epoxy nanocomposites have been proven. Overall, this study aims to contribute to the understanding of epoxy nanocomposites containing pristine and aminosilane-treated SiC particles. By elucidating the structure-property relationships, it is possible to tailor the nanocomposite’s properties to meet specific application requirements. The findings can contribute to the development of highly efficient and strengthened SiC/epoxy nanocomposites through the modification and optimization of their properties.

Experimental

Materials

Epoxy resin ED-20 and polyethylene polyamine (PEPA) hardener provided by CHIMEX Limited, located in St Petersburg, Russia. The phosphoric acid tri-2-chloroethyl ester (TCEP) was used as a flame retardant and plasticizer, which was obtained from Taizhou Ruishite New Material Co., Ltd in Taizhou, Jiangsu, China. TCEP is known for its fire retardant properties due to its composition, containing phosphorus (10.3–11.3 wt %) and chlorine (36.3–37.5 wt %). The presence of these elements enables TCEP to effectively reduce the flammability of materials. The inclusion of TCEP in the composite resulted in an increase in the formation of carbonized structures during the thermal degradation process. This led to a decrease in the release of volatile thermolysis by-products into the gas phase, thereby reducing the overall the epoxy composite flammability. These findings were documented in a previous study.³⁷

As a nanostructuring additive we used nanosized silicon carbide (SiC) produced by Sisco Research Laboratories Pvt. Ltd (Mumbai, India).

Methodology for surface functionalization of SiC particles

The purpose of this procedure was to treat the surface of SiC particles with γ-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) produced by Sigma-Aldrich Co. Ltd (Dorset, United Kingdom). APTES is a chemical compound that can bond to the surface of SiC particles, modifying their properties and allowing for further functionalization. To begin, 0.25 g of SiC particles were dispersed in 50 mL of a 5.0% solution of APTES in distilled water. This dispersion was achieved by using an ultrasonic homogenizer for 10 min. The resulting suspension was then refluxed at 80°C for 12 h. The low-speed stirring helps to maintain a homogenous dispersion of the SiC particles during refluxing. To increase the solubility of APTES in water, the pH of the mixture was adjusted to 5. This was done by gradually introducing glacial acetic acid (99.9%) (reagent grade, Komponent-Reaktiv LLC). A lower pH promotes the hydrolysis of APTES and the formation of silanol groups. Silanol groups are important for further reactions and functionalization of the SiC surface. Additionally, the acidic environment reduces self-condensation reactions between hydrolyzed silanol groups, preventing the formation of unwanted byproducts. After the suspension was centrifuged to separate the SiC particles from any excess APTES solution. The separated SiC particles were then washed twice with distilled water to remove any remaining APTES solution. Finally, the resulting product was dried at 80°C for 5 h to remove any remaining solvents. Drying at a moderate temperature ensures the removal of all liquid components without causing any damage to the SiC particles and their functionalized surface. Overall, this procedure allowed for the surface of SiC particles to be treated with APTES, providing the foundation for further research.

Characterization of SiC

The specified instruments were used for the following purposes:

(1) JEOL JEM-1400 transmission electron microscope (Tokyo, Japan): This microscope was used to study the morphology of SiC particles in high resolution. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) involves passing an electron beam through an ultra-thin sample to create an image with atomic-level detail.

(2) Nano Particle Size Analyzer IG-1000 Plus: This instrument, manufactured by Shimadzu (Tokyo, Japan), was used to determine the size distribution of SiC particles.

(3) Shimadzu IRTracer-100: This infrared spectrometer, also manufactured by Shimadzu (Tokyo, Japan), was used to perform FT-IR spectroscopy on SiC samples. Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy analyzes the interaction of infrared radiation with the sample, providing information about its molecular composition.

(4) ARL X'TRA diffractometer: This diffractometer was used to perform X-ray phase analysis on SiC samples. It utilizes X-ray diffraction to determine the crystal structure and phase composition of materials. CuKα radiation is used as the X-ray source, and a 2θ angle range of 5°–60° is scanned to collect diffraction data.

(5) Quantachrome Nova 2200 surface area and porosity analyzer: This instrument was used to determine the specific surface area of SiC particles. It operates on the principle of gas adsorption, which allows for the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution of porous materials.

Overall, these instruments were employed to investigate the morphology, size distribution, molecular composition, crystal structure, and surface characteristics of SiC particles.

Preparation of epoxy nanocomposites

A previously developed composition consisting of ED-20 (100 parts by mass), polyethylene polyamine (15 parts by mass) and TCEP (40 parts by mass) was used as a polymer matrix.³⁷ As a nanostructuring additive, SiC was introduced into the epoxy composition in an amount of 0.01–0.50 parts by mass.

During the curing process, the epoxy composition undergoes a chemical reaction that results in the formation of a cross-linked polymer network. This process is necessary to give the material its desired mechanical and thermal properties. The stepwise heat treatment at 90 ± 5°С and 120 ± 5°С helps to further strengthen the polymer network and improve its overall performance. This heating process is done in order to promote the completion of the curing reaction and to remove any residual solvents or impurities from the material.

Overall, the combination of ultrasonic treatment, curing, and stepwise heat treatment allows for the production of a composite material with improved properties, thanks to the uniform dispersion of SiC nanoparticles and the robust polymer network that is formed.

Testing of the nanocomposites

The WDW-5E testing machine, manufactured by Time Group Inc. in Beijing, China, was used to determine the tensile and flexural strength of the samples. The testing speed for tension was 5 mm/min, while for flexure it was 50 mm/min. The tests were conducted following the ISO 178:2019 standard for flexural strength and flexural modulus of elasticity, and the ISO 527-2:2012 standard for tensile strength and tensile modulus of elasticity.

The Brinell hardness of the samples was determined using the HBE-3000A electronic Brinell hardness tester, manufactured by Beijing United Test Co., Ltd in China. The impact strength was determined using the LCT-50D impact tester, also manufactured by Beijing United Test Co., Ltd, following the ISO 179-1:2010 standard.

The heat resistance of the samples was determined using Vicat’s method, according to the ISO 306:2004 standard. The curing kinetics of the samples were determined using the temperature method, following the procedure described in reference.³⁸ The degree of curing was obtained by extracting the polymer in acetone using a Soxhlet apparatus, as described in reference.³⁹

The “DTAS-1300” thermal analyzer, manufactured in Samara, Russia, was used for differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of epoxy compositions. The samples weighed 20 mg, were heated up to 400°C, and the heating rate was 16° per minute. Heat flow, the time derivative of heat, was used to determine the heat during the DSC analysis.

Thermogravimetric analysis was performed using the Q-1500D derivatograph system, manufactured by MOM in Budapest, Hungary. The samples weighed 100 mg and were heated up to 800°C at a rate of 10°C per minute. The analysis was conducted in air, and the relative error did not exceed 1%. This analysis studied the change in mass, rate of mass change, and thermal effects during sample heating.

Results

The SiC powder consists of particles with a monomodal distribution, the particles range in size from 20 to 120 nm, with an average particle size of 50 nm, Figure 1. The size range of 20 to 120 nm indicates that the particles are in the nanoscale range. Nanomaterials are typically defined as materials with at least one dimension in the nanoscale range (1–100 nm). Since the SiC powder has a significant portion of particles falling within this range, it can be classified as a nanomaterial.

Based on the TEM data from Figure 2, it can be concluded that the SiC powder is composed of particles that have a shape that is approximately spherical. Additionally, the TEM analysis of the SiC powder further confirms that the average diameter of each individual particle is around 50 nm.

The IR spectrum of SiC contains an intense absorption band of the Si – C group of a characteristic shape at 795 and 1062 cm⁻¹, Figure 3.

The X-ray diffraction pattern of SiC shows that the main phase is cubic silicon carbide, Figure 4.

The specific surface area of the SiC particles was measured using the low-temperature nitrogen adsorption method, which resulted in a value of 74.2 m²/g. This information is significant as it suggests that SiC particles possess a large surface area, which can have a nanostructuring effect when incorporated into an epoxy composition.

In summary, the specific surface area, structure and size distribution of SiC particles indicates their potential for use in epoxy compositions. When incorporated into composites, the nanostructuring effect of SiC particles can significantly enhance the performance properties, making them highly valuable in various industries.

SiC was added to the epoxy composition in a mass range of 0.05–0.50 parts. Based on the findings depicted in Figures 5–7, it becomes apparent that the ideal quantity of SiC as a nanostructuring additive is 0.1 parts by mass. This particular content yields the highest physico-mechanical characteristics: a 130% increase in flexural stress, a 35% increase in flexural modulus of elasticity, a 27% increase in breaking stress in compression, a remarkable 400% increase in impact strength, a 30% increase in tensile strength, a 30% increase in tensile modulus of elasticity, a 76% increase in hardness. Deviating from the optimal SiC content leads to a decrease in strength due to inefficient interaction between the polymer matrix and nanofiller particles, as well as the aggregation of SiC nanoparticles.

The functionalization of nanofillers offers an effective approach to decrease aggregation tendencies and enhance the adhesive properties of nanomaterials to the polymer matrix. Existing studies indicate that surface treatment of nanoparticles with specific compounds is a highly promising method for functionalization, enabling chemical interaction between nanomaterial particles and the polymer matrix. Additionally, this treatment reduces the polydispersity of the nanofiller, resulting in improved deformation-strength characteristics of epoxy nanocomposites.^40–42 The use of APTES in this study was beneficial due to its dual functionality. The amino groups in APTES can form strong interactions with the polymer matrix, enhancing its adhesion and compatibility. This can lead to improved mechanical properties and overall performance of the composite material.^11,43 Furthermore, the silanol groups in APTES can interact with SiC nanoparticles, facilitating their dispersion and preventing agglomeration. This is crucial for achieving a homogeneous distribution of nanoparticles within the polymer matrix, which can effectively enhance the material’s properties, such as thermal and mechanical strength.

The morphology and specific surface area of nanofillers play a crucial role in determining their interaction efficiency with the polymer matrix. This is particularly true in the case of nanofillers that have been treated with various functionalizing agents.^40–42 The surface treatment of SiC nanoparticles using APTES helps to disperse the aggregates of SiC particles, resulting in a reduction in their average size, the particles range in size from 10 to 90 nm, with an average particle size of 30 nm, as depicted in Figure 8. This treatment also leads to a significant increase in the specific surface area of the nanoparticles, from 74.2 to 129.8 m²/g. With increased specific surface area, the SiC particles offer a larger interface for interaction between the particles and the epoxy matrix. This enhanced interface improves load transfer, leading to better mechanical performance.^40–42

APTES is a compound that contains an amino (NH₂) functional group and ethoxy (OCH₂CH₃) functional groups. Epoxy oligomers, on the other hand, contain epoxy (C-O-C) functional groups. When APTES is mixed with epoxy oligomers, a chemical interaction occurs between the amino group of APTES and the epoxy group of the oligomer. In the previous research conducted by us, we established and described in detail this chemical interaction between the functional groups of APTES and the epoxy oligomer. This research is documented and published in reference,⁴⁴ providing a comprehensive understanding of the interaction mechanism.

The FT-IR spectra of SiC treated with APTES showed vibration peaks that corresponded to the functional groups of APTES molecules. This indicates that the APTES molecules successfully bonded to the SiC surface. Additionally, a peak was observed at 1040 cm⁻¹, which confirms the formation of a non-hydrolyzable bond (-Si-O-Si), Figure 3. This bond is formed through a condensation reaction between the hydroxyl groups on the SiC surface and the alkoxy groups of APTES This bond remains intact even after washing the functionalized SiC with distilled water, providing further evidence of the chemical interaction between the APTES functional groups and SiC. This suggests that the APTES molecules have effectively anchored onto the SiC surface, forming a stable bond.

The incorporation of functionalizing agents in the treatment process of a nanofiller has been found to greatly enhance its interaction with the polymer. This treatment effectively reduces the surface energy at the interface between the polymer and the nanofiller, resulting in an increased work of adhesion. As a result, the deformation-strength properties of the composite material are significantly improved.^40–42 A comprehensive study was conducted to assess the impact of introducing APTES-treated SiC into an epoxy composition. The findings revealed a remarkable enhancement in all physical and mechanical characteristics investigated, with a notable increase of 12%–40% compared to the characteristics of the composite material containing pristine SiC, as demonstrated in Figure 9.

The original epoxy polymer has a smooth surface of chipped with low crack resistance,^45,46 Figure 10(a). As shown in Figure 10(a). However, the introduction of pristine SiC into the epoxy composite alters the fracture structure. Evidently, there is an increase in the number of defects on the cleavage surface, accompanied by the appearance of layered structures. This implies that the destruction of the polymer composite requires more energy compared to the original epoxy polymer, as depicted in Figure 10(b).

Furthermore, the presence of functional groups on the SiC surface contributes to the deepening of defects on the cleavage surface. Consequently, the number of defects significantly increases while the boundaries of the scales become blurred and their size expands, as shown in Figure 10(c). This phenomenon is primarily attributed to the formation of trans-boundary layers at the epoxy matrix-nanoparticle interface. It supports the theory of interaction between functional groups of the APTES sizing additive and the epoxy oligomer, which heightens the energy required for destruction, thereby strengthening the composite.^47,48

The addition of nanoparticles with a developed surface to an epoxy composition typically affects the polymerization processes that occur during the curing of the epoxy composite. This effect can be observed through changes in the kinetic parameters of curing.^49–51 A study investigating the curing kinetics of epoxy compositions reveals that the inclusion of both pristine and amino-functionalized SiC initiates the processes of structure formation, as depicted in Figure 11. Specifically, the addition of APTES-treated SiC accelerates the polymerization process. It reduces the time of gelation from 39 to 35 min and the time of curing from 48 to 44 min. Additionally, it enhances the maximum self-heating temperature of the composition from 115°C to 130°C compared to a composition containing pristine SiC, as presented in Table 1. Hence, it is evident that APTES functional groups actively participate in the curing process.

Table 1.

Values of curing indicators of epoxy compositions.

Samples	τ_g (min)	τ_c (min)	T_max (°С)	X (%)
Original epoxy composition	45	53	105	90
Epoxy composition containing 0.1 parts by mass SiC	39	48	115	94
Epoxy composition containing 0.1 parts by mass SiC_(APTES)	35	44	130	98

Note: τ_g – time of gelation, τ_c – time of curing, T_max – maximum self-heating temperature, X – curing degree.

These findings highlight the potential application of nanoparticles with a developed surface, particularly amino-functionalized SiC, to selectively influence the curing kinetics of epoxy compositions.

The results obtained from studying the kinetics of curing of epoxy composites using the thermometric method are consistent with data obtained by DSC, as shown in Figure 12. The addition of APTES-treated SiC into the epoxy composition increases the enthalpy of the curing reaction from 482 to 588-628 J/g and initiates the curing process. This is confirmed by a decrease in the onset temperature of curing from 66°C to 47°C–55°C, as presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Results of DSC of epoxy compositions.

Samples	$\frac{T_{start} - T_{end}}{T_{\max}}$ (°С)	H (J/g)
Original epoxy composition	$\frac{66 - 150}{101}$	482
Epoxy composition containing 0.1 parts by mass SiC	$\frac{55 - 159}{102}$	588
Epoxy composition containing 0.1 parts by mass SiC_(APTES)	$\frac{47 - 158}{102}$	628

Note: T_start, T_end – starting and ending curing temperatures, T_max – the temperature of the maximum heat release during curing, H – enthalpy of the curing reaction.

Overall, the use of APTES-functionalized SiC nanoparticles in epoxy compositions has shown several beneficial effects during the curing process. Firstly, they promote the polymerization process, leading to a more efficient curing process. The reactive amino groups in APTES actively participate in the polymerization reaction, facilitating the crosslinking of the epoxy molecules.

Furthermore, the incorporation of SiC nanoparticles lowers the initial curing temperature required for the reaction to initiate. These findings demonstrate the potential benefits of using APTES-functionalized SiC nanoparticles in epoxy compositions.

To investigate the effects of SiC on epoxy composites, TGA was measured as shown in Figure 13, and the relevant data are provided in Table 3.

Table 3.

The results of the TGA for epoxy composites.

Samples	T_5% (°C)	T_50% (°C)	Residues at 1000°C, wt%
Original epoxy composite	180	372	2.4
Epoxy composite containing 0.1 parts by mass SiC	190	413	8.4
Epoxy composite containing 0.1 parts by mass SiC_(APTES)	205	423	9.3

Analysis of the results obtained showed that for the initial epoxy polymer, the temperature at a weight loss of 5% (T_5%) and 50% (T_50%) is 180°C and 372°C, respectively, indicating that the main stage of thermolysis is associated with the decomposition of the three-dimensional network structure of the epoxy resin. The addition of the pristine SiC ensures an increase in T_5% and T_50% to 190°C and 413°C, respectively, Table 3. The addition of SiC treated with APTES to the epoxy composition increases the thermal stability of epoxy nanocomposites, which is confirmed by an increase in the T_5% and T_50% indicators, Table 3.

In addition, it was found that the carbon residue at 1000°C for composites containing both pristine and functionalized SiC increases from 2.4 wt% to 8.4 and 9.3 wt%, respectively, which is associated with the excellent caralytic ability of silicon carbide for charring. An increase in residual carbon yield is an important indicator for assessing the thermal stability of epoxy composites at high temperatures .^52–54 Thus, the addition of SiC significantly improves the thermal stability of epoxy composites.

Conclusions

Overall, the studies conducted on SiC nanoparticles have shown that they tend to agglomerate, making it difficult to distribute them uniformly in epoxy compositions. This limits their effectiveness in enhancing the properties of polymer composites. To address this, functionalization of the nanoparticles is necessary to reduce agglomeration and promote chemical interaction at the interface between the epoxy matrix and nanoparticles.

The functionalization treatment helps decrease the free surface energy at the polymer-nanofiller interface and increases the work of adhesion, resulting in improved physical and mechanical characteristics of the composite material. When SiC treated with APTES is added to the epoxy composition, physical and mechanical characteristics showed an increase of 70%–179% compared to unfilled epoxy composites.

Furthermore, the addition of functionalized SiC nanoparticles initiates the polymerization process due to the participation of reactive amino groups in the polymerization reaction. This leads to a decrease in the initial curing temperature and an increase in the thermal effects of the polymerization reaction.

The thermal stability of epoxy nanocomposites is also improved with the addition of APTES-treated SiC. This is evidenced by an increase in the T5% and T50% indicators, which measure the temperature at which the composite has lost 5% and 50% of its weight, respectively. The carbon residue at 1000°C also increases significantly, indicating improved thermal stability. Silicon carbide’s catalytic ability for charring contributes to this increase in residual carbon yield, which is an important indicator of thermal stability at high temperatures.

In summary, the addition of functionalized SiC nanoparticles significantly enhances the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of epoxy nanocomposites. This improvement is attributed to reduced agglomeration, improved adhesion, and the participation of reactive groups in the polymerization process.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as potential conflicts of interest.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research has been funded by the Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan (grant no. BR18574094).

ORCID iDs

Anton Mostovoy

Andrey Shcherbakov

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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