Challenges Facing Immigrant Students in US Public Schools From Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Framework: A Systematic Review

Abstract

This systematic review analyzed 43 empirical studies on the challenges faced by immigrant students in US K-12 schools through the lens of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework. An inductive thematic analysis revealed seven key challenges, primarily concentrated at the micro- and macrosystem levels, though themes were addressed across multiple systems. These findings underscore the complex, multi-level nature of the challenges and offer critical insights for shaping education policies and practices that address the unique needs of immigrant students.

Keywords

educational studies language policy social emotional,human development

This systematic review critically examines 43 empirical studies on the challenges that immigrant students, who are those born abroad or children of foreign-born parents, face in US public schools from kindergarten through high school (i.e., K-12 schools), using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1995). This review offers a comprehensive overview of the current landscape of challenges, identifies gaps in the literature, and provides a valuable resource for educators and researchers, ultimately supporting future research and potential policy considerations. Considering declining public education funding and the increased discrimination toward immigrants in 2025, this study is especially timely. Rapid policy changes and deportations were associated with a marked rise in absences among immigrant students in 2025 (Dee, 2025). The study examines complex, multilayered challenges within the ecological system, linking the interpersonal experience of discrimination with broader societal attitudes and policies. It underscores the need to address structural challenges through policies that prioritize equity and access to resources for immigrant students.

A growing immigrant student population shapes the landscape of US public K-12 schools. As of 2021, immigrant students constitute over a quarter of the total student body, representing approximately 5.1 million students (Figlio et al., 2021). Projections indicate that immigrant families, which comprise 26% of the US population in 2020, are poised to increase to 36% by 2065 (Esterline & Batalova, 2022). The diversity within the immigrant student population in the United States is notable, with the top ten countries including Mexico, China, India, the Philippines, El Salvador, Vietnam, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, and Korea, accounting for about 57% of the US immigrant population. Within this group, foreign-born students aged 5 to 17 represent 5% of this immigrant population (Ward & Batalova, 2023). Given this demographic trend and the diverse backgrounds of immigrant students, researchers, educators, and policymakers must develop a clear understanding of the challenges these students face.

Literature Review

To explore the multifaceted challenges faced by immigrant students in US K-12 schools, we apply Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework as a guiding theoretical lens to contextualize the reviewed studies. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework is a theory of human development that underscores the interconnectedness between individuals and their surroundings (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1995). It suggests that human development is shaped by a series of nested systems, each exerting distinct influences on the individual. These systems range from the immediate interactions within the microsystem to the broader societal influences of the macrosystem. This framework emphasizes that an individual’s development is not solely determined by their internal attributes but is shaped by the contexts in which they live and interact. Bronfenbrenner (1995) suggests the following five systems that comprise the ecological system:

Microsystem (Micro Level)

The microsystem represents the immediate and direct environments in which individuals interact daily. These settings, including family, school, peers, and community, play a pivotal role in shaping an individual student’s beliefs, values, and behaviors.

Mesosystem (Meso Level)

The mesosystem underscores the interconnectedness between different microsystem elements. It highlights how experiences in one setting can impact and interact with experiences in another. This layer reveals the cumulative effects of interactions across various environments. For instance, the interaction and communication between parents and teachers may influence a student’s educational experience. Alternatively, the system examines a student’s participation in community programs or after-school activities and their impact on academic performance.

Exosystem (Exo Level)

The exosystem includes a larger social system that may not directly impact students but indirectly influences them. The impact of parents’ workplace policies (e.g., work-from-home arrangements and parental leave) and the role of media (e.g., social media, the internet, and TV) in students’ lives are examples of this system. The exosystem’s influence on students’ lives can be indirectly observed and interpreted.

Macrosystem (Macro Level)

The macrosystem encompasses the broader cultural, societal, and ideological context that shapes the micro- and mesosystems. It includes social norms, cultural values, economic systems, and political structures that provide the foundation for individuals' experiences.

Chronosystem

The chronosystem adds the dimension of time, reflecting the influence of life transitions and sociohistorical contexts. The system emphasizes how the timing of significant life events and broader historical changes would impact student development. The chronosystem involves the timing, duration, and sequence of life events, addressing a comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between each system’s influence on student development.

By anchoring our analysis in Bronfenbrenner’s framework, we aim to move beyond the simple cataloging of challenges to provide a more theoretically grounded understanding of how these challenges manifest and interact across various contexts. This approach provides a nuanced and contextualized analysis of the complex interplay between individual experiences and broader societal factors, enabling more targeted interventions that address multiple ecological levels simultaneously.

Method

Our review was guided by the research question: “What are the primary challenges encountered by immigrant students in the context of US K-12 education as identified in empirical studies?” We incorporated elements of the PRISMA guidelines (Page et al., 2021) to enhance the rigor and transparency of our study.

Search Strategy

We conducted our initial search using the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) database system. ERIC was selected as the primary database due to its status as the world’s most extensive digital library for education-related research. This choice enabled us to focus on a specialized database, thereby avoiding redundant studies that often result from searches across multiple databases with overlapping information. We used the following search terms:

(immigrant student) AND (USA OR “United States,” OR America OR US OR “United States of America”) AND (education OR school) AND (challenges OR obstacles OR difficulties OR issues OR problems)

The search was conducted in Fall 2021, covering studies published between January 2011 and July 2021. We selected the timeframe as it corresponds with the onset of this systematic review process and reflects the evolving challenges and experiences of immigrant students in US K-12 schools. This period encompasses significant shifts in educational practices, social attitudes, and institutional policies related to immigrant students, including increased awareness of diversity and inclusion in schools and emerging discussions about mental health and language access. For example, this decade saw heightened attention to educational equity for linguistically diverse students, Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals was initiated in 2012, the implementation of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015, and challenges arising from the COVID-19 pandemic, which disproportionately affected immigrant communities (Ward & Batalova, 2023).

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

We applied the following inclusion and exclusion criteria to determine the eligibility of each publication:

Inclusion criteria:

• Peer-reviewed empirical studies published in academic journals

• Published between January 2011 and July 2021

• Focused on immigrant students in US K-12 schools

• Addressed challenges or barriers faced by immigrant students

Exclusion criteria:

• Literature reviews, policy analyses, and systematic reviews

• Studies focused on head-start and early childhood education

• Studies centered on higher education

• Non-empirical studies

Study Selection Process

The initial search yielded a collection of 131 studies. Four research assistants (RAs), consisting of both undergraduate and graduate students, underwent comprehensive training in qualitative research methodologies, systematic review procedures, and coding protocols under the guidance of the two faculty members leading the project. These RAs scrutinized the selected articles, employing the inclusion and exclusion criteria to determine the eligibility of each publication for inclusion in the study. To ensure the rigor of this decision-making process, a second coder or a faculty member verified the inclusion or exclusion of each publication before any articles were excluded from the subsequent analysis.

After applying the exclusion criteria, 85 publications were excluded, resulting in 43 studies for the final analysis. Figure 1 shows the PRISMA 2020 flow diagram.

Figure 1.

Data search procedure.

The studies included in the analysis are indicated in the reference section. While not included in the analysis, some policy reviews, literature reviews, and systematic review papers were considered to situate this study’s findings in the discussion section and to inform the practical implications.

Data Analysis

We developed a standardized data extraction form in Excel to ensure consistency across reviewers. The form included fields for: Coder’s identity, APA-style reference for the publication, publication year, discussed topics including keywords or any salient issues investigated, research questions, participant attributes (e.g., gender, age, school level, nationality or immigration types, and participants’ status), data collection and analysis plans, results, implications, and any supplementary comments.

One RA assumed the responsibility of delving further into the analysis process. She employed an inductive data coding approach based on open coding (Nowell et al., 2017). Then, she employed a three-step process to identify the codes and overarching themes (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Synthesizing and coding procedure.

Step 1: In the first step, she reviewed the EXCEL chart and each study’s abstract, research questions, findings, and discussion sections. During this review, she identified the main topics and keywords of each empirical research study, resulting in 50 distinct topics and keywords. Some examples of these topics are difficulty assimilating and acculturative stress, discrimination, students’ cultural differences, responsibilities outside of school, economic responsibilities, limitations to home resources, self-discrimination or internalized oppression, past traumas, family pressure, dual identities, parental language barriers, conscious or unconscious bias on the part of staff, misinformation about immigrants, and lack of cultural sensitivity/competency. Many studies were coded for multiple topics, reflecting complex and multifaceted challenges faced by immigrant students in the US schools.

Step 2: The RA, the first author, and the second author then met virtually to review the topics. In the second stage, the RA grouped similar topics. This step yielded seven groups of topics. For instance, acculturative stress, cultural differences, and dual identities were grouped. In the third stage, adopting a thematic analysis approach (Nowell et al., 2017), the RA further distilled and categorized the major topics discussed across the articles to reveal commonalities and patterns.

Step 3: Finally, she synthesized the grouped topics into overarching themes. For instance, the topics related to discrimination, self-discrimination/internalized oppression, misunderstanding of systems of oppression, racial bias and stereotyping, intersectionality, conscious or unconscious bias on the part of the staff, xenophobia, gender, and dominant culture’s perceptions/deficit views were collectively coded under the theme of discrimination and bias. This theme encapsulates the various ways in which immigrant students experience prejudice and unequal treatment in the educational environment.

Step 4: While conducting thematic analysis, the research team recognized that the themes could be categorized into micro, meso, and macro systems. At this stage, the research team focused on the core levels of interaction. The first author then reviewed the categorizations to confirm the accuracy of the analysis.

Step 5: The research team decided to expand the fourth stage of analysis to include both the exosystem and the chronosystem. The first author reviewed the studies again and recategorized them into five systems. To ensure inter-rater reliability, the second author independently categorized a random sample of 16% of the studies, a proportion considered acceptable for systematic reviews (Belur et al., 2021). Any discrepancies in categorization were discussed and resolved through consensus between the two authors. This process yielded a more comprehensive analysis that effectively utilized Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework.

Bronfenbrenner’s framework emerged naturally during our data analysis. Through an open coding analysis of 43 empirical studies, we observed that the challenges faced by immigrant students aligned with the micro-, meso-, and macro levels. This observation led us to adopt Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework to systematically contextualize our findings. While not used in our initial analysis, this framework helps interpret results and understand the interplay of factors affecting immigrant students in US K-12 schools, potentially informing interventions at various ecological levels.

Findings

Our analysis, guided by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework, revealed various challenges immigrant students face in US K-12 schools across multiple systems. The identified challenges include discrimination and bias (24 studies, 55.8%), school system factors (16 studies, 37.2%), acculturative stress (13 studies, 30.2%), negative emotional factors (12 studies, 27.9%), language barriers (9 studies, 20.9%), student’s situational factors (12 studies, 27.9%), and a lack of social support (2 studies, 4.7%). Some studies were coded multiple times. Among Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems, the microsystem was most frequently addressed (95.3% of studies), followed by the macrosystem (83.7%), mesosystem (76.7%), and exosystem (60.4%). The chronosystem received limited attention (2.3% of studies). The themes were addressed across multiple ecological systems, which emphasizes the interconnected nature of these challenges. Table 1 summarizes how these challenges were presented across Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems. While most studies explored multiple systems, not all systems were equally prominent or explicitly addressed.

Table 1.

Themes, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems, and Number of Studies.

Factors/Systems	Micro	Meso	Exo	Macro	Chrono
Discrimination	23	17	14	19	0
School system	16	13	13	13	0
Acculturative	12	8	6	11	1
Situational	12	9	6	9	0
Negative emotion	12	9	8	11	0
Language	9	9	7	8	0
Lack of social supports	2	1	1	2	0

In the following sections, we report on each of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems and the themes that emerged in the analysis.

Microsystem

The challenges in the microsystem were most investigated in the reviewed research. Studies focus on insightful details into the individual experiences and direct interactions that immigrant students navigate in the US educational setting. In this system, discrimination surfaced as the primary challenge (23 studies). According to the data, the occurrence of discrimination and bias toward immigrant students includes overt discrimination, such as stereotyping comments made in the classroom by peers, which is a recurring challenge that negatively impacts immigrant students (Kumi-Yeboah, 2020). Another particularly damaging form of discrimination occurs when students are shamed for not conforming to racial and cultural stereotypes. Lee and colleagues describe students’ experience of being criticized as they do not meet the societal expectations tied to their race (Lee et al., 2018). Not only overt discrimination but also covert discrimination is documented in the studies. Kumi-Yeboah (2020) notes that immigrant students internalize discrimination and shame about their cultural and ethnic origins. The self-perception further alienates these students from their heritage, resulting in identity conflicts. In addition, xenophobia is another form of bias that immigrant students frequently encounter at the microsystem level. As Kumi-Yeboah & Smith (2017) explains, xenophobic attitudes, which may stem from fear or hostility toward individuals perceived as foreign, exacerbate feelings of isolation and exclusion. Such attitudes often target students’ cultural or linguistic differences, further marginalizing them within the school environment and compounding the challenges they face in adapting to a new educational and social context.

Acculturative stress (as investigated in12 studies) is another challenge examined in this system. Researchers have observed that the stress of navigating cultural differences and dual identities negatively impacts the academic success of immigrant students (Archuleta & Lakhwani, 2016; Kumi-Yeboah et al., 2020). Multiple studies emphasize that many immigrant students are uniquely positioned between two cultures: their native culture at home and American culture at school. Students in this position need to negotiate one culture at home, and another at school, each of which may place different expectations and norms on the student (Crawford & Valle, 2016; Oikonomidoy, 2015; Qin & Li, 2020; Thakore-Dunlap & Van Velsor, 2014). The transition between two cultures can make it difficult for students to transition into the school day, particularly after the weekend or holidays, when the student is away from school for a period (Crawford & Valle, 2016).

Situational circumstances (12 studies) significantly impacted students' educational experiences, with researchers such as Borjian (2016) and Harklau (2013) showing the impact of fiscal responsibilities and work-school balance on academic performance. Learning English presents a substantial hurdle for both students and their parents (9 studies). Language proficiency, a cornerstone of academic engagement, proves to be a critical determinant of success for immigrant students navigating the US education system.

Mesosystem

At the mesosystem level (33 studies), the interplay among various microsystems presented intricate issues. A few studies directly addressed the mesosystem, which focuses on the interactions between an individual’s immediate environments, such as home, school, and community, more prominently in discussing their findings. Crawford and Valle (2016) highlight the role of school counselors in supporting undocumented students, emphasizing how counselors mediate between students and institutional policies. Their proactive engagement with students and families is crucial for navigating the educational system and accessing resources, significantly impacting academic persistence and well-being. Similarly, Zarate et al. (2016) examine the ethical dilemmas educators face in immigrant contexts, focusing on interactions between teachers, administrators, students, and families. The study emphasizes culturally responsive practices and collaborative efforts among educators and the community, underscoring the mesosystem’s critical role in shaping educational outcomes.

In school systems (13 studies), DeMulder et al. (2014) and Monreal and McCorkle (2021) reported insufficient student-teacher communication and deficiencies in cultural sensitivity, reflecting how relationships between different microsystems can impact student experiences. An ethnographic study of an English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom observed that the communication between ESL teacher and student was “conditioned by the level of [English] fluency of the students” (Somé-Guiébré, 2016, p. 37). The literature identified a lack of teacher preparation to work with students of diverse backgrounds in the classroom (Kumi-Yeboah, 2020; Papola-Ellis & Heineke, 2020). In one study, immigrant students reported feeling “uncomfortable, humiliated, and unwelcome” as a result of derogatory remarks made by teachers and their peers (Kumi-Yeboah, 2020, p. 772). One participant reported that their teachers asked them “weird questions about Africa during class,” resulting in discomfort and emotional pain for that student (Kumi-Yeboah, 2020, p. 772). In other cases, some teachers, though prepared and willing to help immigrant students, face other obstacles beyond their control, leading to demoralization (Crawford & Valle, 2016). Counselors, for instance, reported barriers related to students’ legal status or the “family’s financial circumstances” (Crawford & Valle, 2016, p. 12). Lastly, some studies suggest that a lack of representation due to being an ethnic or racial minority negatively impacts immigrant students (Hong et al., 2016; Kim, 2013).

Exosystem

Exosystem level challenges (26 studies) are presented as the impact of institutional policies and resource allocation on the experiences of immigrant students. Researchers find that immigrant students are burdened by the dominant culture’s negative perception of immigrants and a deficit view of them (Crawford & Valle, 2016; Warwick & Palmer, 2012). Monreal & McCorkle (2021) analyzed the middle school social studies textbook used by a North Carolina school system. Researchers analyzed its discussion of immigration throughout US history. They found that this textbook framed modern immigration as problematic and illegal. In contrast, the early European immigrants are framed as moral and brave (Monreal & McCorkle, 2021). Analysis of this school system’s official curriculum suggests that a teacher’s negative beliefs about immigration are more likely to be supported than challenged by the curriculum (Monreal & McCorkle, 2021). This school system provides an example of how issues can be framed in a way that implicitly targets immigrant students and how important it is to consider the tone that a curriculum sets in the classroom.

Researchers also report that immigrant students’ academic performance is negatively affected by a lack of school resources, including funding and personnel (Crawford & Witherspoon, 2017; Johnson, 2012; Lee et al., 2018). One study highlighted a middle school principal’s frustration with the school system’s demand for higher test scores because there was no additional funding to hire more staff members. This principal said, “We should hire, and it should be easy for us to. We should have all the funds, we should have all the resources … and it's the opposite in this district” (Crawford & Witherspoon, 2017, p. 20). In addition to feeling pressure from above, this principal also expressed deep concern for her students’ well-being and life balance (Crawford & Witherspoon, 2017).

At the exosystem level, the absence of accessible resources and fundamental needs further constrained immigrant students' academic potential. Factors like unstable housing, limited internet access, transportation challenges, and economic need emerged as obstacles that compromised academic progress (e.g., Carhill-Poza & Williams, 2020; Harman & Varga-Dobai, 2012). Crawford and Valle (2016) shed light on the interplay between housing stability and educational engagement, citing that impermanent housing posed obstacles for students in commuting to school and impeded their readiness to learn (p. 14).

Macrosystem

The macrosystem frames how wider cultural and governmental frameworks influence the experiences of immigrant students. The Macrosystem level challenges are well discussed in the studies that investigate the impact of school, local, state, and federal policies on immigrant students.

Kirksey and colleagues (2020) explicitly delve into the impacts of deportation threats near schools, revealing the profound stress and fear experienced by immigrant students due to macro-level immigration policies and societal attitudes (Kirksey et al., 2020). Johnson (2012), on the other hand, discusses the ramifications of language policy in Arizona’s educational settings, offering a glimpse into the struggles of non-English speaking students within a system that often marginalizes their linguistic and cultural identities. Sociopolitical factors, immigration policies, cultural attitudes, and societal ideologies contribute to the discrimination and bias faced by immigrant students. These macro-level forces intersect with challenges in the mesosystem level, amplifying the complexities of students' experiences. However, the research landscape lacks an in-depth exploration of these macro-level influences, leaving a gap in understanding how broader cultural norms and policies affect the challenges encountered by immigrant students.

Macrosystem challenges within the school system underscore the effects of policies across many jurisdictions. Zarate et al. (2016) discovered that flawed policies and insufficient comprehension of immigration laws impeded students. Irizarry and Kleyn (2011) observe that the absence of standardized curricula throughout the US hindered immigrant students' adaptation. Johnson (2012) explicitly outlined the issues associated with Arizona’s Proposition 203, which required structured English immersion programs. Drake (2017) investigated educators' adaptation to legislative alterations while addressing the requirements of undereducated immigrant students.

Acculturative stress at the macrosystem level indicated cultural tensions between the home and host societies. Thakore-Dunlap and Van Velsor (2014) discuss the cultural differences that South Asian immigrant students experience in their home country, including “very strict rules with rigid guidelines regarding teacher–student interaction…” When these students begin to attend school in the Us, “they must adapt to the less formal educational approach in US high schools. US teachers often encourage students to express their thoughts and feelings, while South Asian parents instill in their students that openly expressing their opinions to adults shows disrespect” (Thakore-Dunlap & Van Velsor, 2014, p. 509).

The study recorded numerous emotional difficulties arising at the macro level. Harman and Varga-Dobai (2012) document trauma resulting from familial separation during migration, which resurfaces in school situations, such as feeling anxious or abandoned when a parent is late at pickup. Patel et al. (2016) delineated various facets of the impact of family separation, encompassing maternal separation, disruption of extended family, and obstacles associated with reunification. Students expressed sentiments of inequity (Hong et al., 2016), alone (Sattin-Bajaj, 2015), and apprehension regarding deportation (Harman & Varga-Dobai, 2012). Crawford and Valle (2016) explicitly observed the impact of housing instability on school commute and learning preparedness.

Chronosystem

While the chronosystem was not prominently presented, we observed that timing also plays a role in research on immigrant students’ challenges and barriers. For instance, over the period spanning from 2011 to 2021, there were significant spikes in article publication in the years 2012, 2016, and 2020. Intriguingly, this pattern coincides with US presidential election years (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Year of publications.

Following each of these peaks, we noted a consistent decline in the number of publications in subsequent years. This pattern of increase during election years and decrease in the following years was observed across the three election cycles covered in our review period. This cyclical fluctuation suggests a potential correlation between the political landscape and the volume of research attention dedicated to immigrant students' experiences in US K-12 education. We then arranged the topics and years of publication as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4.

Publication year and topics.

While discrimination and bias emerged as the most prevalent theme in the empirical studies, this theme was most frequently investigated during election years. Additionally, the theme of negative emotions was the next most popular topic during the years 2012, 2016, and 2020 overall. The pattern may be attributed to the heightened political and social discourse surrounding immigration during these times. In the 2016 election, immigration was one of the central issues, with Trump advocating for a hardline stance against immigration, including building a border wall, stricter immigration policies, and deporting undocumented immigrants. This contrasted broadly with Clinton’s proposals, such as protections for DREAMers (Medina Vidal, 2018). The 2020 election saw similar themes but more intensified due to the Trump administration’s policies during his first term, such as family separations at the border and the reduction of refugee admissions. Biden’s campaign proposed reversing the policies. It is possible that the political stance differences could have fueled public and academic discourse, reflecting broader societal debates on the immigrant students’ lives.

Challenges Across Multiple Ecological Systems

As explained in Appendix 1, most studies examine the challenges faced by immigrant students across multiple ecological systems. The intricate relationship between the microsystem and macrosystem is demonstrated by Thakore-Dunlap and Van Velsor (2014), who show how immigrant status and gender norms overlap. Focus groups with South Asian high school girls shed light on their struggles with the strict cultural norms surrounding their gender roles. These responsibilities include taking care of the home, showing respect for male authority figures, and adhering to cultural customs. These results highlight the ways in which intersectional concerns add to the difficulties faced by immigrant students and complicate their educational journeys.

Problems in the school system frequently arise at the nexus of institutional and individual elements, affecting both the macrosystem and the microsystem. Inequitable assessment processes, unsupportive learning environments, inadequate teacher preparation, and restrictive educational regulations are common themes among the 16 papers that were reviewed. Immigrant children encounter difficulties with standardized testing systems that do not align with their diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, as noted by Johnson (2012) and Zarate et al. (2016). High-stakes tests, according to Irizarry and Kleyn (2011), usually ignore the unique needs of these individuals, making their academic marginalization worse. These results demonstrate the connection between the consequences for immigrant kids and systemic policy shortcomings.

The dynamic interplay between individual experiences within the microsystem and outside impacts from the exosystem is further demonstrated by the situational elements of the students. The substantial impact of nonacademic elements on immigrant students' educational paths, such as financial obligations, social expectations, and family duties, was examined in seven studies. These situational obstacles highlight the significant impact of contextual factors on learning outcomes and show the intricate link between academic achievement and external duties.

Language ability remains a significant obstacle that affects both individual academic performance and the general interactions between the home and the school. Language obstacles have two effects, according to eight studies: parents find it challenging to participate in school activities because they lack the necessary skills, and children struggle to learn English. This contradiction illustrates how language barriers impede individual achievement as well as the crucial mesosystem linkages that support student achievement (e.g., Desmore et al., 2016; Somé-Guiébré, 2016).

Discussion

We reviewed 43 empirical studies that investigate the challenges faced by immigrant students in US K-12 schools. As the number of immigrant students in US public schools is increasing rapidly, it is essential to better understand the challenges they encounter in education and inform teachers, policymakers, and families. These challenges include discrimination and bias, school system factors, acculturative stress, negative emotional factors, language barriers, students’ situational factors, and a lack of social support. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory helped contextualize and highlight the complex and interconnected nature of the challenges. The findings reveal that these challenges span multiple ecological systems, with the microsystem and macrosystem being the most frequently addressed.

Bronfenbrenner’s framework underscores the importance of examining the interactions between systems to grasp the experiences of immigrant students fully. Challenges within the microsystem, such as discrimination from peers and teachers, internalized oppression, and acculturative stress, are compounded by broader systemic issues in the macrosystem, including societal attitudes, immigration policies, and cultural biases. Similar challenges have been synthesized in prior reviews. For example, Bal and Perzigian (2013) documented that discrimination and insufficient support in schools often lead to both academic and behavioral challenges for immigrant students. These findings emphasize the necessity of addressing biases and promoting cultural sensitivity within schools, communities, and society.

The mesosystem further reveals how interactions between home, school, and community environments shape the experience of immigrant students. Positive communication and collaboration between parents and educators can mitigate some challenges, yet many immigrant families face barriers such as language difficulties and cultural misunderstandings. This observation aligns with Sibley and Brabeck’s (2017) review of Latino immigrant students, which emphasizes that strong family, school, and community collaborations are vital for student success; yet, such collaborations are frequently undermined by cultural misunderstandings and communication barriers. These barriers often hinder parents’ ability to advocate for their children’s education, demonstrating the need for schools to implement inclusive practices and provide resources to support immigrant families.

At the exosystem level, the indirect effects of institutional policies and resource allocation become evident. Limited access to educational resources, unstable housing, and economic constraints disproportionately affect immigrant students, exacerbating existing inequities. For instance, inadequate funding for schools serving immigrant populations often results in larger class sizes and fewer support services, further marginalizing these students (Bushnell, 2021; Evans et al., 2022; Free & Križ, 2022). Addressing these structural challenges requires policy changes that prioritize equity and access to resources.

The macrosystem reflects the broader cultural and ideological context influencing immigrant students’ lives. The interplay between cultural expectations at home and societal norms in the US creates a dynamic tension for many students, particularly those navigating dual identities. Studies also highlight the emotional toll of the macrosystem issues, such as the fear of deportation and the stress associated with family separation, which significantly impact students’ mental health and academic performance. Our findings mirror what Adelman and Taylor (2015) reported. They concluded in their review that systemic inequalities and cultural biases embedded in US schools continue to limit equity of opportunity for immigrant students. Their review underscores the urgent need for reforms at the macrosystem level to confront structural barriers. Despite the extensive exploration of challenges across the micro-, meso-, macro-, and exosystems, the chronosystem remains a largely untapped area of research. Understanding the temporal dimension of these challenges, including the long-term effects of immigration and policy changes, could provide deeper insights into the evolving needs of immigrant students.

Limitations and Future Directions for Research

The scope of this review centered on a database that specializes in education. Given that immigrant students’ experiences transcend academic boundaries, future research might benefit from incorporating other databases that are widely used in social sciences, psychology, and policy.

This systematic review, using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework, has illuminated a multifaceted array of challenges encountered by immigrant students in US K-12 education. There is substantial literature addressing challenges in the microsystem and somewhat in the meso and macrosystems; a clear need for deeper exploration of other systems, the exosystem and chronosystem, is evident. Due to the indirect nature of the exosystem’s impact on immigrant students’ experiences, more rigorous study designs and precise operationalization of research questions are needed to investigate the challenges within this system. As Bronfenbrenner proposed the chronosystem in the revision of his original framework, it is understood that this system is deeply embedded in every other system within the framework, although it may not be explicitly addressed or discussed in studies. For example, changes in immigration laws can create uncertainty and anxiety among immigrant families, affecting students' mental health and concentration in school. Immigration itself, as a life-changing event, can have long-lasting effects on a student’s educational trajectory and emotional well-being. Large scale and longitudinal studies should also be conducted to better understand immigrant students’ progress in the US public school system and to inform resource allocation as students advance through school levels. Longitudinal work will additionally help capture how shifts in political climate, immigration policy, and global events affect immigrant students over time. Future research could also center on the lived experiences of immigrant students by including their voices through primary data collection and/or participatory research methods.

Implications for Practice

The findings of this systematic review suggest several implications for educational practice, teacher education, and education policy. The complex and interconnected nature of challenges that immigrant students experience, manifesting at the micro, meso, exo, macro, and chrono systems, demands multi-level interventions. Depending on immigrants’ challenges, adequate support should involve agents at multiple levels simultaneously. For instance, not only teachers but also families, school administrators, and policymakers may tackle discrimination issues at school together. Teacher education programs and professional development should address ways to foster supportive and inclusive environments by prioritizing cultural competence, anti-bias education, and rigorous multilingual programs.

Communities and schools can support immigrant families to engage in school decisions and events by providing translation services and by encouraging them to host cultural awareness events for the school and communities. Building on these insights, schools should institutionalize culturally sustaining pedagogy and trauma-informed practices, both of which are recommended in prior reviews (Adelman & Taylor, 2015; Bal & Perzigian, 2013). Moreover, Sibley and Brabeck (2017). highlight the importance of empowering immigrant families as educational partners by offering leadership opportunities and systematic bilingual communication. Practical resources support these implications. For example, Greenberg et al. (2021) developed a comprehensive federal toolkit for newcomer and refugee students, which offers concrete strategies consistent with our findings, such as culturally responsive onboarding practices, sustained social emotional support, proactive teacher training, and standardized district-level supports. Adopting such frameworks could help schools translate research findings into actionable changes that foster equity and belonging for immigrant learners. Policy-level actions are needed to secure more resources by staffing and funding supportive services, as well as by supporting research that identifies immigrant students’ unique needs and challenges.

Conclusion

The findings of this review reveal the complex, multilayered challenges that immigrant students in US K-12 education face. From immediate interpersonal experiences of discrimination to the broader impacts of societal attitudes and policies, these challenges span all levels of the ecological system. The current sociopolitical context in the United States underscores the need for understanding these interconnected challenges so that educators, policymakers, and researchers can develop more effective, holistic strategies to support the educational success and well-being of immigrant students. Since January 2025, the second Trump administration’s immigration and domestic policy changes have resulted in a hostile environment and pervasive fear in the community. Schools have long been seen as a space that embodies belonging and helps students to access critical supports (Evans et al., 2022; Rodriguez, 2023), but that is quickly changing in many districts around the country.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Jiyoon Lee

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by University of Maryland, Baltimore County (Hrabowski Fund for Innovation Award).

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Themes and Ecological Systems

Note. 1 indicates evidence found. Bolded and red font indicates the main system identified.

References

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