Spontaneous Transformation and Recovery From Problematic Eating: A Heuristic Inquiry

Abstract

Health care professionals agree that there are countless individuals with problematic eating habits that detract from health and well-being but do not directly meet the criteria for diagnosis of disorder. Previous research identifies that problematic eating patterns are notoriously challenging to address and that positive changes in behavior are difficult to maintain. This qualitative study contributes to the literature identifying potential mechanisms for transformative and lasting change for individuals exhibiting problematic eating patterns. Utilizing heuristic methodology, the lived experience of spontaneous transformation as a mechanism of change in the development of, and recovery from, problematic eating habits was illuminated and explored by the primary researcher, SS, and six female coresearchers. The data for this study were obtained through in-depth, informal conversational interviews. Heuristic analysis of the data revealed six core themes relevant to the experience of the phenomenon of spontaneous transformation and the recovery from problematic eating habits: (a) early messaging in environment of origin, (b) moments of suffering as gateways to change, (c) perceived loss of control, (d) implicit awareness resulting in transformation, (e) physical expressions of expansion and constriction, (f) and the necessity for a new definition of recovery. The findings of this study point toward the experience of spontaneous transformation as a mechanism for enhanced self-awareness and potential for generating transformational change in patterns of problematic eating.

Keywords

spontaneous transformation problematic eating self-awareness change

Problematic eating has been defined as “emotional eating, stress-related eating, eating without awareness and/or overeating” (Alberts et al., 2012, p. 848). In addition, problematic eating patterns can contain a corresponding element of feeling out of control and unable to curtail the undesirable behavior (Verstuyf et al., 2013). The impact and consequences of problematic and disordered eating patterns are far reaching—individually, communally, and economically. Not only do these eating habits contribute to emotional and mental distress, but they have also been associated with a number of physical and lifestyle-related illnesses (Grotto & Zied, 2010). Obesity, type 2 diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, a plethora of autoimmune disorders, and various mood disturbances top the list of ailments comorbid with eating pathology (Bemporad, 1997; Cave et al., 2007; M. N. Miller & Pumariega, 2001). Additionally, researchers and clinicians believe that when people have correlating diseases or issues requiring lifestyle adjustment, the challenge of addressing problematic eating patterns and facilitating lasting change becomes inherently more difficult (Brownell, 1998; Mozaffarian et al., 2011).

As the primary researcher of this heuristic inquiry, this qualitative study holds deep, personal meaning for me (SS). My road to recovery from an eating disorder was a long and arduous journey—one that, according to research statistics, not all individuals are able to traverse and complete successfully (Costin, 2007; Torem, 1990; Unoka et al., 2010). What makes the topic of recovery so fascinating to me is that healing in the guise of change was not always a gradual and cumulative process involving modification of behavior; rather, it was riddled with pivotal, all-encompassing moments of deep transformation, each bordered on its connection to an averted crisis that suddenly and spontaneously became an avenue for sustained change.

Prochaska et al. (2006) suggest that the process of change occurs on a spectrum, in stages, and is cyclical. An individual must first recognize that there is a need or desire for change and that change is feasible. When an individual becomes aware that change is possible, the next phase in the process is taking incremental steps toward enacting and maintaining it. Practicing awareness and congruent action is a foundational principle of cognitive behavioral therapy (Fenn & Byrne, 2013). In practice, cognitive behavioral therapy frequently coupled with pharmacological intervention are the most prevalent forms of therapy for problematic or disordered eating (Linardon et al., 2017). Yet it can be argued that focusing on behavioral modification and stages of change takes time, and while it is demonstrably effective in some cases, it remains inconsistent with lasting results in others (Costin, 2007). At present, there seems to be no cohesive understanding as to what makes lasting change so elusive; but researchers generally agree that intervention for problematic eating patterns remains a formidable point of inquiry and application (Dong et al., 2016).

Relatedly, spontaneous transformation is experienced as a pivotal moment of change that occurs when one’s explicit and implicit awareness converge and evoke a full-bodied, almost rapturous phenomenon. Fosha (2006) differentiated this mechanism of transformation from that of simply behavioral, linear change, which is slower and more diffuse, by adding that this type of “transformation results in an alteration of encoded neurobiological patterns” (p. 581). The changes wrought during spontaneous transformation have an impact on multiple levels and are enduring (W. R. Miller & C’de Baca, 2001). As such, spontaneous transformation has been defined as a “sudden, discontinuous, and rapid” culmination of both implicit and explicit sensations, thoughts, and emotions that occur “in a heartbeat” and elicit immediate reorganization of neural networking (Fosha, 2006, p. 569). This multidimensional occurrence stimulates the potential for immediate and enduring neurobiological change (Fosha, 2012).

To explore the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery, this qualitative heuristic study investigated two questions: (a) How do adult women perceive and discuss their experiences of pivotal moments of change? (b) How do these moments relate to the process of recovering from problematic eating? Findings from this study suggest that increased levels of well-being are possible when deeper levels of self-awareness are cultivated through the intensity of implicit and explicit awareness as it converges into a process identified as spontaneous transformation (Cloninger, 2004; Csikszentmihályi, 2008; Siegel, 2007).

Method

Heuristic research is autobiographical in nature (Moustakas, 1990). To create a systematic framework for investigation, while still allowing for the organic unfolding of inner dialogue and processing, Moustakas (1990) identified the following six stages of inquiry, each of which occurs at its own pace and depth.

Initial engagement: It is in the initial engagement phase that researchers begin truly to unearth their passion for or deep connection to a particular phenomenon in their experience. They reach deep within, reflecting on experiences of the self, generating a deeper awareness of their autobiography, and, from that point, generating an intuitively informed question. The “topic, theme, problem, or question” of the investigation is clarified (Moustakas, 1990, p. 27). In this study, the theme of inquiry has been explored through personal reflections on and continued experience of moments of spontaneous transformation within the framework of recovering from problematic eating habits. As the global implications are more deeply investigated, coresearchers are included in the investigative process. The inclusion of coresearchers is an integral part of heuristic inquiry, representing the potential of the phenomenon in question for other individuals in society.

Immersion: As the theme of inquiry emerges and solidifies, it becomes essential for the researcher to immerse himself or herself fully in the topic. Moustakas (1990) insisted that the researcher live “the question in waking, sleeping, and even dream states” (p. 28). In this phase, the researcher is “alert to all possibilities of meaning” (Moustakas, 1990, p. 28). True to its definition, immersion involves constant delving into the topic from an internal frame of reference. All interactions become fodder for sustained internal inquiry and cultivation of implicit understanding. Through self-dialogue and deep states of inquiry, the researcher releases any preconceived or conceptual ideas concerning the topic and begins to encourage the unfolding of tacit awareness in an unstructured or unbiased forum (Polanyi, 1966).

Incubation: There comes a moment when the researcher must step away from the intense process of immersion and allow all that has arisen to take shape of its own volition. One must incubate to illuminate and draw forth new information (McDonald, 2007). During the incubation stage, the researcher changes focus and is no longer absorbed in the topic. This “enables the inner tacit dimension to reach its full possibility” (Moustakas, 1990, p. 28). Clearing the focus and allowing what was in the spotlight of reflection to shift momentarily back to the subconscious allow for further insight to come to the fore. Moustakas (1990) equated this process to that of attempting to remember a name. So long as one remains focused intently, the name continues to elude cognitive awareness; however, when distracted by another task, quite often the sought-after information will again become part of conscious awareness. Incubation, in short, is required for further illumination.

Illumination: Laski (1962) likens this stage to the “Eureka!” or lightning-strike, breakthrough moment that moves us from one level of knowing to another. Something once hidden can now come to conscious awareness. Perhaps it is in the guise of new information or a change in distorted thinking; either way, it emerges from the space of incubation and into consciousness. What was implicit or tacit is now also known explicitly. The convergence of these two forms of knowing awakens new possibilities for the integration or exploration of the topic at hand. Much like Mikkelsen et al. (2014) stages of cognitive development, illumination provides awareness of new information that can then be accommodated within the remaining stages.

Explication: The researcher engages the newly arisen information and begins to examine its implications. This process involves self-reflection and “self-disclosure” (Moustakas, 1990, p. 31). Through introspection, the researcher focuses on the inner meaning of any new information relevant to the phenomenon in question. It is this phase that allows for a distillation of experience and information. The researcher in essence comes again to the table of self-discovery and intuitive inquiry. Any new information is analyzed for significant value. Often, the topic in question becomes more complex and multidimensional, with added layers of heuristically acquired data. Significant themes are identified and assimilated into a rich depiction of an entire experience that represents the internal frame of reference from which the question arises.

Creative synthesis: This phase involves not only identification of the data mined from the earlier stages but also a creative or intuitive assimilation of the process, the information, and the final synthesized results of the heuristic research method. Moustakas (1990) specifies that “the major components that underlie a creative synthesis are the tacit dimension, intuition, and self-searching” (p. 32). Creative synthesis is more than delivery of subjective analysis or data results; it involves weaving the complex narrative unique to the research process with the researcher’s internal frame of reference. Specific to the heuristic approach, the presentation of research is influenced by the verbatim narrative and rich real-world examples of the researcher process, with culminating findings frequently occurring through some means of creative expression such as poetry, painting, or story-telling (Moustakas, 1990). The foundational intention behind creative delivery of results is to retain the full integrity of the unique perceptions and experiences of the explorer.

Through the lens of heuristic inquiry, this study explored the experience of immediate and spontaneous transformation that provided pivotal moments of lasting change for women who have recovered from problematic eating habits. To re-create the lived phenomenon through comprehensive depictions of each person’s experience (Moustakas, 1990), coresearchers had the opportunity to share their experiences with the primary researcher through narratives, examples, or any other mode of expression that felt most congruent with their experience. Each reflective encounter was video recorded to ensure accurate review and transcription.

The issue of the “lived experience of spontaneous transformation” was the focus of inquiry; the recovery from problematic eating was simply the framework within which the phenomenon occurred. As such, this study did not focus on the issues or themes of problematic eating unless relevant to spontaneous transformation. Informal dialogue clarified this distinction and demonstrated the intention of inviting the coresearchers to elaborate and describe their experiences as their thoughts and feelings on the topic were revealed. While the inquiry was in the form of a conversational interview, the coresearchers were not limited to expression simply in narrative form. Other forms of expression, such as poetry, art, or movement, were accepted as part of their sharing of experience.

Participants

This study was reviewed by Saybrook University’s Institutional Review Board and approved to include the researcher and six coresearchers. The six coresearchers were all female, aged 25 years or older, who were selected based on their expressed interest in pivotal moments of change and spontaneous transformation. They also self-identified as having recovered from maladaptive eating habits and continuing to be passionate about food, eating, and recovery.

Procedure: Data Collection and Analysis

Data were gathered through informal conversational interviews conducted between the primary researcher and the coresearchers as described by Patton (1980). Approximately 120 minutes were allotted to allow for full exploration and explication of the experience in question, with the understanding that full expression could require more or less time. All interviews were video recorded and transcribed.

Data Analysis

The methods and procedures used to research this topic follow heuristic methodology developed by Moustakas (1990). Heuristic analysis of the data revealed six core themes or qualities that encompassed each individual experience of spontaneous transformation ultimately leading to recovery from problematic or disordered eating.

Results

Six coresearchers—Katie, Julie, Sarah, Maureen, Natalie, and Nancy (names were changed to protect participant privacy)—were interviewed about their experiences of spontaneous transformation and recovery from problematic eating. The themes that emerged from the analysis of the transcriptions of these interviews also reflected the lived experience of the primary researcher: (a) early messages from environment of origin, (b) moments of suffering as gateways to change, (c) loss of control, (d) implicit awareness resulting in transformation, (e) physical expressions of expansion and constriction, and (f) new definition of recovery. The sections below explore the participants’ experiences, and a representative sample of the individual responses is included.

Early Messages From Environment of Origin

All the coresearchers discussed the influence of the adult women in their environment of origin with reference to food and eating. Each had witnessed mothers, aunts, or grandmothers engaging in maladaptive or problematic eating habits. All told stories of mothers who dieted and suffered from a distorted body image and discussed indirect pressures to engage in similar patterns. Coresearcher Natalie shared as follows:

I think problematic eating was a very family issue. I think body image was a big family issue. Weight, appearance, body, food—all of that in all of the women in my family were big issues. I remember from a very young age seeing women around me pinching themselves and going on diets and trying to lose weight.

Similarly, Sarah recalled being 7 years of age and dieting with her mother. She was aware that she did not fully understand what dieting meant. For her, dieting was not out of awareness of body or weight; rather, it was a way to connect with her mother. Sarah believed that it was this early experience that influenced utilizing food and eating as a coping mechanism when she was struggling with self-image issues.

Alternately, Nancy shared that she grew up in a home relatively devoid of female influence other than the girlfriends of her father and brothers. These women directly influenced Nancy’s choices concerning food and eating. She related that one girlfriend cautioned her about eating too “robustly” lest she suffer the repercussion of excess weight. Nancy recalled watching these women come and go, with a sense of being on the outside of a “secret society.” The only way in was to eat similarly and pay attention to her weight. It was a short road to the use of food as a coping mechanism, struggling with size and poor self-esteem throughout childhood and adolescence.

Moments of Suffering as Gateways to Change

Suffering can be defined as any state of mental, emotional, or physical discomfort that generates intense upheaval within the body, mind, or spirit. Each coresearcher shared that change was elicited by a moment(s) of great suffering. These moments of suffering led not only to the life-enhancing experiences but also to the acquisition of maladaptive patterns. For example, Sarah shared a pivotal moment of awareness when she was young:

I have a very distinct memory of being about 10 or 11, when my body started to change and I started to grow, and I went to a clothing store with my mother and I couldn’t fit into something. I was starting to change out of little girl sizes and I remember I had a fit. I literally had a fit, because I wanted to be the little girl. My mother got so outraged by my having a fit in the store.

Sarah remembered making the decision to diet in earnest. She suddenly had a crystalized, embodied understanding of why her mother dieted and felt compelled to do “whatever it took” to remain small and slim. Alternately, she recalled as an adult, a moment of awareness where the resulting physical ailments were so challenging that she felt complete mental, emotional, and spiritual despair. It was from within the intensity of that despair that she found the motivation to begin a search for help and intervention regarding her eating habits and problematic behaviors.

Katie also referred to significant suffering that led to the use of food and eating as a coping mechanism. She recalled that she felt an emptiness in her being. She felt hungry all the time and would eat constantly. Her choice to begin eating to fill the void began when she suddenly had to take over the role of parent at a very young age after her mother was in a serious accident and could not care for her or her brothers. She described feeling intense episodes of helplessness and despair; when she ate food, she would for the moment fill the void that seemed so large. As an adult, in a moment of great emotional suffering and intense physiological despair, she knew that she needed to do whatever it took to become healthy and end the disordered eating patterns. She was prompted to do something, anything, that would motivate change in order to relieve her suffering.

Maureen shared that her initial introduction into the realm of problematic eating was stimulated by intense physical and emotional suffering brought about through an incident of sexual violence at a young age. She remembers thinking with her young mind that she might be able to disappear if she refrained from eating. Similarly, as an adult, it was a moment of intense mental and emotional anguish that led her to seek solace in a dance and movement class that ended up changing her life.

Perceived Loss of Control

Loss of control is signified by a feeling of being overwhelmed and, as related by coresearchers, a sense of having lost any semblance of perceived control over problematic habits. Prior to the feeling of loss of control, the coresearchers reported feeling a sense of structure around their problematic or maladaptive choices. One coresearcher, Katie, equated the feeling of loss of control to the psychological concept referred to as “the dark night of the soul,” or that moment of hitting rock bottom. Each coresearcher reported having a moment of realization that her life was no longer her own. More specifically, as Sarah related, the problematic habits were in actuality “running the show.”

Natalie shared a specific moment when she had the very clear awareness that she was out of control of her habits and that something would need to change if she wanted to live the life she dreamed of living.

I was on the plane, on my way to a yoga training. My body was shaking, and I was sweating and freaking out, so I got off the plane and didn’t complete my trip. I flew back to Greece the next day.

It was like the realization set in that, if I didn’t get better, I wouldn’t be able to do anything more in my life. I wouldn’t be able to study more. I wouldn’t be able to teach. I wouldn’t be able to do anything whatsoever. I think that was the thing that hit me so badly. I wanted to do so many things and I had so many dreams.

The perception that one has lost control can contribute to the sense of suffering and ultimately to the implicit awareness that change needs to happen. As primary researcher, I felt that my own perception of loss of control began when I realized that my maladaptive behaviors would not cease even when my conscious and cognitive mind desperately wanted them to stop. I was logically aware that death would be the result of my chosen patterns, sooner rather than later, and it terrified me.

Implicit Awareness Results in Transformation

Implicit awareness occurs within the domain of the self (Dienes & Perner, 1999). The transformation generated by implicit awareness is enduring and life changing. Each coresearcher shared stories of a sudden aha moment, an implicit, almost wordless, awareness that something was changing. Maureen reflected that it felt like a moment of intense and indescribable joy:

One day I had gone to a conference at a retreat center and walked into a drumming and dance class. I didn’t really know what was happening. It was, like, that day I just stepped in—fully into myself, and I was okay with being present fully. I didn’t have that judgment going on of, “Oh, look at these other people dancing. I probably look stupid.” There was none of that. I was just enjoying being in my body and the feel of the drums and the movement. By the end of the class I had tears rolling down my face and I was just blown away. I hadn’t felt that kind of joy except maybe once or twice in my life.

She shared that, during the class, she felt for the first time fully present in her body. She had no words, just an intense experience that changed her life forever.

Sarah’s experience occurred as result of a short-term lifestyle change. As she traveled and became more aware of her internal experiences, she was changed. Sarah reflected,

I spent two years abroad in Japan. That’s where I actually really started working on my eating disorder. I definitely had just a profound spiritual experience of complete surrendering of the struggle—the complete surrendering of this addiction and the compulsive behaviors that I had. And it was a very profound spiritual experience for me to just have the sense of a connection to the divine. I really understood that it wasn’t something that I had to fix—that I could really surrender it over to something much bigger than myself. And for me that was a huge turning point, where I started to experience freedom again. And that was really profound . . . when a lot of my really intense behaviors just began to slip away.

The immediate implicit awareness that generates transformation is not always comfortable or pleasant. As Natalie observed, her transformation resulted from a momentary realization accompanied by an embodied intensity that spurred a change in her habits and behaviors:

I suddenly realized that I was dancing and doing yoga and all of these things supposedly because I was very spiritual. Then I had to admit to myself that the main reason I was doing anything was to burn calories. That was a really painful realization.

Physical Expressions of Expansion and Constriction

While viewing the video recordings of each coresearcher, I observed a particular set of embodied actions that occurred each time someone attempted to find language to describe the immediate sensation of spontaneous transformation. The coresearchers agreed that the topic of spontaneous transformation and the moment when something actually broke open and created change was nebulous and outside the realm of language. As the coresearchers attempted to find language, they continuously returned to the same bodily postures: First, the body folded in, arms in, chest concave, head and chin down, and then demonstrating an opening or expansion, with head and chin thrown back, arms out, chest open. In each case, this particular action was accompanied by a deep inhale and a releasing exhale. For example, when Katie spoke, she demonstrated postures describing herself like a seed attempting to push its way to the surface and unfold to the sun. For Sarah, she noted that the sensation of her body felt open, alive, and juicy, as though the energy that was her birthright was flowing through her entire body. The energy she described created a sensation of health and balance.

I related the coresearchers’ physical expression of expansion and constriction to the movements identified in moments of bottom-up processing during somatosensory or experiential dynamic therapeutic interventions (Fosha, 2002; Ogden et al., 2006). Bottom-up processing begins as named, from the place of sensory stimuli. It is the precognitive embodiment of awareness. In these instances, a result of physiological reflection and response, occurring in real time and eliciting physical movement as the experience rises to cognitive processing and then verbal expression.

New Definition of Recovery

Finally, within each shared experience of spontaneous transformation and the journey of recovery from problematic eating, there was a call to redefine the term recovery. The conventional definition of recovery that was identified and rejected by each coresearcher was that of a static condition or state of being—that is, one recognizes the issue, makes changes toward health, and then recovers. However, the coresearchers shared a different lived reality. Rather than experiencing static change, they revealed a story of holism that included not only their individual selves but humanity at large, along with a continued change that denoted a continuum or trajectory of healing. Sarah noted,

I don’t know that food is ever going to be a completely healed issue. Even though I am considered “recovered,” it’s something that will probably remain with me for as long as I’m on the planet. It just creates a way, whether it comes through symptomology or whether it’s just through habit, of pointing me to some unresolved issues for myself or for the world.

Natalie shared that she believed healing happens on a spectrum: We never return to who we were before. Instead, we become something different, constantly evolving. With that in mind, she related her belief that we also are so heavily influenced by the cultural norm that we not only recover and heal ourselves but also the culture at large. Maureen recognized that, in the continued movement toward healing and balance, we in turn are healing and balancing the world. Each moment of spontaneous transformation creates a ripple toward healing. Healing and recovery, in other words, are a continual process simultaneously uniquely individual and universally relevant.

Discussion

A culminating summary of the thematic findings suggested that each coresearcher’s experience of spontaneous transformation, as catalyst for acquisition of and recovery from problematic eating, in essence mirrored my own experience. In the context of spontaneous transformation, each event was precipitated by moments of intense suffering, feelings of loss of control, and the realization that what had worked was no longer effective. Each pivotal moment of spontaneous transformation included fully encompassing physiological experiences that transcended verbal description. They represented a convergence of thought, emotion, sensation, conscious and unconscious, external and internal, with every aspect of awareness resulting in a collision of changed internal processing. The conclusion of each event then led to something different—the sensation that one was changed forever, that there was no going back to what was.

The discussion of these experiences parallels the information found in the literature concerning immediate and enduring change. Spontaneous transformation is a convergence of implicit and explicit awareness that transcends language. Unlike Prochaska et al.’s (2006) model of intentional behavioral change, spontaneous transformation appears to be not only unintentional but, in many cases, unsolicited. Yet, if harnessed in appropriate ways, spontaneously transformative moments can potentially lead to deep healing and lasting recovery. Similarly, as discussed by Fosha (2005), when cultivated in a therapeutic environment that allows for adaptive processing, spontaneous transformation may be a highly beneficial tool for enhancing states of greater self-awareness and well-being.

Conclusion and Implications

There appears to be an inordinate amount of information within the literature addressing recovery from eating disorders and problematic eating. However, as one begins to sift through the various ideas and information, it becomes apparent that eating disorders and problematic eating are challenging issues to work with, and there is minimal consensus on what constitutes successful treatment (Oakley & Wybraniec, 1996). None of the literature reviewed referred specifically to the phenomenon of spontaneous transformation with reference to disordered or problematic eating.

The findings of this research contribute to closing the gap in the literature concerning spontaneous transformation and recovery from problematic eating habits. One part of closing that gap is accomplished by providing further research on the topic of spontaneous transformation, a topic that is underrepresented in the current literature. Another aspect is the potential for offering varying insights into the topic of problematic eating and recovery. While this study was specifically about the phenomenon of spontaneous transformation, it was explored within the more general framework of maladaptive eating patterns and recovery.

A third aspect that would contribute to the literature on eating disorders and behavioral change is the topic of recovery and the potential for elaborating on its current definition. As indicated by the participants of this study, defining recovery as a dynamic process allows for a more sustainable and lasting experience of transformation. Last, following the recommendation of Fosha (2012) and Ogden et al. (2006), the findings from this study indicate that including the client’s embodied experience within the therapeutic context is a valuable resource for practitioners to consider.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Stephanie Shelburne

Author Biographies

Stephanie Shelburne, PhD, serves as the executive director and research coordinator for Live Life Resources, a 510(c)3 committed to education, research, and advocacy for the facilitation of resilience in individuals, families, and communities. She also develops and delivers curriculum in health and well-being for several universities and colleges in the United States. Shelburne is an adjunct faculty at Saybrook University, College of Integrative Medicine and Health Science, where she teaches nutrition and mental health, psychobiology of eating, and narrative medicine.

Devorah Curtis, PhD, serves as Chair in the Department of Mind-Body Medicine in the College of Integrative Medicine and Health Sciences at Saybrook University. She is a board-certified coach and has published research on the impact of life coaching on psychological courage and self-determination.

Donna Rockwell, PsyD, is an adjunct faculty at Saybrook University, College of Integrative Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Mind-Body Medicine, where she teaches mindfulness and meditation in health. Rockwell is a mindfulness researcher exploring its role in clinical psychology training and practice, presenting her original research findings at annual meetings of the American Psychological Association, as well as at other national and international conferences. A student of humanistic psychology founder, Clark Moustakas, PhD, at the Center for Humanistic Studies (now Michigan School of Psychology), Rockwell taught courses in person-centered psychotherapy, qualitative research, group process, mindfulness in psychology, community psychology, and dissertation writing. Rockwell is author of the chapter “Mindfulness as Therapy: How Buddhist Psychology Contributes to Enhancing Therapist Efficacy and Client Outcomes” in the book The Changing Faces of Therapy: Evolving Perspectives on Clinical Issues and Assessment edited by R. Valle.

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