Examining Relationships Among Concert Band Directors’ Efficacious Sources,Self-Efficacy for Teaching Strategies,and Effective Teaching Skills

Method

Results

I calculated the means and standard deviations for BDSETS scores and each source of self-efficacy. A BDSETS score for each participant (N = 610) was generated by adding their self-reported confidence levels for the four representative scale items, resulting in a scale that ranged from 0 to 40 (M = 33.86, SD = 4.77). The Sources of Self-Efficacy for Concert Band Teaching score was the sum of the six related items, resulting in scores that could range from 0 to 60. Band directors’ responses were highest for physiological state (M = 53.01, SD = 5.87), followed by verbal persuasion (M = 52.14, SD = 7.53), vicarious experience (M = 51.94, SD = 7.15), and mastery experience (M = 49.92, SD = 5.96). Descriptive statistics for self-efficacy items are found in Table S1 (included with the online version of the article).

I conducted 10 correlation analyses to examine how participants’ self-efficacy for teaching strategies related with its four sources. Spearman’s rho test was used to calculate correlations due to violating the assumption of normality needed to use Pearson’s test. Correlations (r_s) ranged from .64 (mastery experience and verbal persuasion) to .32 (BDSETS and vicarious experience). All were significant at the .001 level. (For complete correlation statistical information see Table S2, included with the online version of the article.)

In order to predict BDSETS from its four sources, I used a multiple-regression analysis. Assumptions of homoscedasticity, independence of the errors, and multicollinearity were met. Following a significant Shapiro-Wilk test (p < .05), bootstrapped samples were used to accommodate for the violation of normality. After accounting for all four of Bandura’s (1997) theorized sources of self-efficacy, I found mastery experience (b = .27) to be the strongest significant predictor of BDSETS, followed by verbal persuasion (b = .12) and physiological state (b = .10), R² = .32, F(1, 570) = 10.08, p < .001. Vicarious experience did not significantly predict efficacious beliefs. See Table S3 (included with the online version of the article) for regression data.

Based on prior research concerning teachers’ career stages (Day & Gu, 2007; Huberman, 1989), participants were assigned to one of three groups depending on their years of concert band teaching experience: (a) early career (1–7 years, n = 206), (b) midcareer (8–23 years, n = 263), and (c) late career (more than 23 years, n = 139). Efficacious beliefs were then analyzed among career stages. Because Levene’s F test revealed the homogeneity assumption of variances was not met (p = .014), the Welch’s F test was used. Results of a one-way ANOVA indicated a significant, large effect of career stage on self-efficacy for teaching strategies, Welch’s F(2, 365.72) = 71.45, p < .001, η² = .18. Post hoc comparisons using the Games-Howell procedure for unequal variances indicated that late-career band directors (M = 36.39, SD = 3.77) had significantly higher self-efficacy (p < .001) for teaching strategies than midcareer (M = 34.56, SD = 4.57) and early-career directors (M = 31.21, SD = 4.39), with effect sizes (d) of .44 and 1.27, respectively. Additionally, midcareer directors had significantly higher self-efficacy than early-career directors (p < .001, d = .75).

I conducted multiple-regression modeling to examine how the influence of each source on BDSETS differed by career stage. Bootstrapped samples were again used following a violation of the normality assumption. Mastery experience was the strongest predictor of BDSETS at all career stages (p < .05). Verbal persuasion also was a significant predictor of BDSETS at each career stage, whereas physiological state significantly predicted midcareer directors’ efficacy. Vicarious experience did not significantly predict efficacious beliefs for any career stage. See Table S3 (included with the online version of the article) for career stage regression data.

In order to compare the self-reported effective-teaching-skills scores between higher-self-efficacy directors (n = 305) and lower-self-efficacy directors (n = 300), I split the sample at the median BDSETS score (Mdn = 34.50). The number of participants in each group differed due to incomplete data on effective teaching skills. Comparisons were made using independent-samples t tests with a Bonferroni adjustment due to multiple comparisons. All paired samples violated the equal-variances assumption; therefore, equal variances were not assumed. Results indicated that all comparisons between these two groups of directors were significant (p < .001) with effect sizes greater than d = .55. The largest disparity between the higher-self-efficacy group and the lower-self-efficacy group was their self-reported effectiveness to “present a lesson with clarity,” t(559.70) = −12.25, p < .001, d = .99, followed by “motivating students,” t(560.65) = 11.31, p < .001, d = .92. The smallest effect size found was for “frequently making eye contact with students,” t(555.53) = −6.90, p < .001, d = .56. See Table S4 (included with the online version of the article) for complete t test results for effective teaching behaviors.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate self-efficacy for teaching strategies among high school concert band directors and its sources. Directors’ self-efficacy for teaching strategies were influenced most by mastery experiences, followed by verbal persuasions, physiological state, and vicarious experiences, in order of importance. These results are similar to those from previous studies in general education (Lent et al., 1991; Usher & Pajares, 2006) and music settings (Hendricks, 2014; Zelenak, 2015). Bandura (1997) believed previous successes and failures were powerful predictors of self-efficacy. In educational settings, these experiences may be even more important due to the reciprocal nature between students’ relative success creating new mastery experiences for teachers that can impact efficacious beliefs (Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009; Woolfolk Hoy & Davis, 2006). Teachers that acquire successful mastery experiences likely improve their opportunity to receive positive feedback, resulting in greater confidence and efficacy for concert band teaching tasks.

Participants who reported greater self-efficacy for teaching strategies also rated themselves as more confident for using effective teaching skills. Higher- and lower-efficacy groups’ teaching-skills scores differed the most for “presenting a lesson with clarity,” suggesting the perceived difficulty level of the skill. Scores for “motivating students” and “maintaining student behavior,” both highly valued skills for successful teaching among music teachers as reported in previous studies (Miksza et al., 2010; Teachout, 1997), also differed significantly between efficacy groups. Higher-efficacy teachers reported higher scores on skills associated with teacher intensity, including “maintaining classroom management,” “maintaining an effective rehearsal pace,” and “presenting a lesson with clarity” (C. Madsen et al., 1992). Intensity behaviors were indicative of effective teaching in examinations of preservice elementary teachers (Cassidy, 1990), in-service elementary teachers (K. Madsen, 2003), and instrumental student teachers (C. Madsen et al., 1992). Efficacious directors may feel confident in their ability to improve student performance by applying effective pedagogical strategies specific to their learners’ needs while motivating and controlling student behavior. Improving skills and behaviors for which directors feel less confident could improve their self-efficacy and enable them “to set higher goals for themselves and others . . . and learn new methods that contribute to higher student achievement” (Ross, 1998, p. 58). Videotaping rehearsals, receiving peer or mentor feedback, or asking students about their learning needs could provide insight for directors’ identification of skills that need improvement (Powell, 2016).

BDSETS scores were associated with experience level. This result is consistent with previous findings among K–12 music teachers (Wagoner, 2011) and instrumental and vocal teachers (Biasutti & Concina, 2018). The larger difference in efficaciousness between early- and midcareer directors than between mid- and late-career directors supports Bandura’s (1997) theory that efficacious beliefs are most impacted at the beginning of development and may be resilient to change once established. Therefore, it seems important to identify experiences that affect early-career directors’ self-efficacy due to the lasting impact that beliefs have on teachers’ motivation and confidence (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Early-career directors’ self-efficacy was best predicted by their mastery experiences and verbal persuasions based on the results of the current study. Consistent with previous recommendations, this result supports novice teachers’ need for pedagogical and psychological mentorship and resources as they gain mastery teaching experiences (Koerner, 2017; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). Specifically, mentorship in the form of “regular meetings, mutual observations, and formal and detailed teaching evaluations over multiple years” (Koerner, 2017, p. 206) may support the efficacy of early-career directors. Fostering the self-efficacy of early-career directors could improve their professional commitment and identity (Wagoner, 2011) and could result in less teacher attrition and migration (Hancock, 2008).

Verbal persuasions for specific mastery experiences may be particularly helpful for directors who seek to improve their self-efficacy for teaching strategies. Researchers have reported that the qualities of feedback can change the influence of others’ persuasions. For example, receiving feedback early in the learning process and after successfully performing a task can be important to efficacious beliefs (Schunk, 1984). However, improvements to self-efficacy from feedback can fade if effort does not produce desired results (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007). Furthermore, feedback that is unspecific or seemingly insincere may not have a lasting impact on self-efficacy, whereas support from respected individuals when trying new pedagogical strategies can provide the encouragement for directors to persevere when teaching becomes difficult (Bandura, 1997). Hancock (2008) found that support from administrators and parents related with music teachers’ classroom efficacy. Similar investigations of concert band directors’ classroom efficacy and support systems could reveal relationships with teaching approaches in the rehearsal hall. Other examinations into perceived quality of colleague and community support (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007) might improve our understanding of how verbal persuasions influence directors’ willingness to implement new pedagogical strategies and efficacious beliefs for teaching.

Among the three career stages, physiological state had a significant relationship with midcareer directors’ self-efficacy only. Midcareer concert band directors—who have chosen to remain in the profession—likely have experienced impactful teaching episodes and received meaningful feedback, resulting in a strong physiological state. However, results of the current study indicated that the influence of physiological state on self-efficacy was not significant as directors continued to teach, possibly due to declining professional motivation and enthusiasm (Day & Gu, 2007). Huberman (1989) suggested that late-career-stage teachers experience a sense of serenity, where a lack of enthusiasm and energy is compensated with having a greater sense of confidence and self-acceptance, followed by a period of disengagement at the very end of their careers. Rather than being impacted by their physiological state, late-career directors’ beliefs were predicted by a long career of impactful teaching experiences and the verbal persuasions of others. However, directors who lack motivation and enthusiasm for teaching, or maybe have anxiety or stress, may need to address professional expectations (Schwarzer & Hallum, 2008) or feelings of imposter phenomena (Sims & Cassidy, 2018). Acknowledgement of imposter feelings (Sims & Cassidy, 2018) or meditation practices (Diaz, 2018; Roeser et al., 2013) have the potential to improve concert band directors’ physiological state and thus may improve efficacious beliefs for teaching tasks, especially among midcareer directors, when such influences are most impactful.

Although vicarious experience had a small, significant correlation with efficacious beliefs and moderate correlations with the other sources of self-efficacy, it did not significantly predict directors’ self-efficacy for teaching strategies. Other findings have indicated that vicarious experiences had little impact on general education teachers’ self-efficacy (Guskey, 1989; Joyce & Showers, 1988). Observational experiences are often part of workshops or graduate course work, but the results of this study suggest such experiences may need to be supported by other efficacious sources. For example, undergraduate observational experiences have been found to impact preservice teachers’ beliefs, most notably when experiences are structured and students have the opportunity to share their findings with classmates (Prichard, 2017). Conway (2012) suggested that teacher educators should provide students with contextual guidance and support during observations. Bandura (1997) also stressed the importance of having a growth mindset during observations of peers—rather than a competitive one—to maximize the potential benefit from such experiences. Support and structure for in-service directors that is similar to those found in preservice course work, while focusing on positive pedagogical strategies and professional attributes, could provide positive feedback and reflective practice that develops pedagogical efficacy. Allowing time for observers and model teachers to discuss pedagogical strategies utilized in rehearsals may increase observers’ confidence to apply new ideas in their own classrooms. Further support could be provided by having directors share videos of their teaching with mentor teachers in order to receive further guidance (Bautista et al., 2019).

Findings from this study suggest that developmental experiences may need to be evaluated to determine if they effectively impact concert band directors’ self-efficacy. Directors frequently participate in professional development workshops in which clinicians provide pedagogical strategies; however, results have indicated that such persuasions rarely make a lasting impression on efficacious beliefs (Guskey, 1989; Tchannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009). Because mastery experiences are often the most predictive source of self-efficacy, workshops that include the opportunity to conduct ensembles with support and feedback from expert pedagogues could improve the impact that developmental experiences have on self-efficacy. Additional feedback sessions after workshop participation may increase the likelihood that teachers implement new teaching strategies in the classroom (Dolloff, 1996). These developmental approaches also would appear to transfer to graduate course work settings. Identification of course work that includes support for pedagogical strategy implementation, especially in settings where participants feel less efficacious, could improve teachers’ confidence, effectiveness, and student achievement. Informal learning with colleagues also can improve teaching confidence. Tschannen-Moran and Johnson (2011) reported that general education teachers’ participation in book clubs or teachers-as-readers groups related to feelings of confidence for engaging students in learning. Perhaps similar informal learning environments could provide experiences that influence directors’ self-efficacy for teaching, such as community music ensembles or chamber groups with peers.

The generalizability of this study is limited by the population that was surveyed and response rate. Care should be taken when transferring the experiences of concert band directors to teachers of other band settings or choral and orchestra instructors. Although attempts to reduce response bias were made by ensuring participant anonymity throughout the survey, the sample of the current study may have reported higher self-beliefs than what might be expected among the actual population (Miksza & Tan, 2015). Results indicated that mean scores for self-efficacy and its sources were negatively skewed and the normality assumptions were not met. These results were accounted for by using robust tests to the normality assumption. Furthermore, effect sizes between higher-efficacy and lower-efficacy groups were large, suggesting that directors reported their beliefs honestly.

Concert band directors’ self-efficacy is influenced not only by previous experiences and the physiological state associated with a presented task but also by numerous contextual factors, such as personal and school demographics, content knowledge, and competence for a task (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Examinations into the influence that these factors have on directors’ self-efficacy for teaching strategies could further our understanding of their beliefs. Considering that previous research results have indicated efficacious sources may influence females differently than males (Hendricks, 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2008), attention should be given to the role of gender. Other variables to consider include the quality of preservice and professional development experiences, administrative support, job stress, and imposter feelings, as these have been found to affect the beliefs of teachers of varying levels and disciplines. Exploring how efficacious beliefs also influence music teachers in orchestra, choral, or general music settings will allow for meaningful comparisons across groups of teachers. Results might further our understanding of how music teachers with different specialty areas develop at the preservice and in-service levels and could lead to music education classes and workshops that impact efficacious beliefs for all music teachers.

The results of this study indicated that self-efficacy and the influence of its sources may change across time, in addition to strong relationships between self-efficacy for teaching strategies and effective teaching skills. As such, it is important that researchers continue to investigate the extent that directors’ efficacious beliefs are influenced by prior experiences and those experiences’ possible impact on teaching behaviors. Extending the current investigation by examining the impact of teachers’ self-efficacy on students’ outcomes seems appropriate. Results could support the development of directors’ self-efficacy as a means for improving students’ motivation, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and performance achievement.

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