Abstract
One factor that may contribute to the success of students with disabilities in postsecondary educational settings may be their ability to advocate for academic accommodations. By incorporating self-determination practices into the curriculum and transition process during high school, students with disabilities may acquire the self-advocacy skills for postsecondary settings. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a modified Self-Advocacy and Conflict Resolution (mSACR) training program on the ability of five high school students with high-incidence disabilities to request academic accommodations in a high school general education course. A multiple-probe-across-participants design was employed to evaluate the effects of the intervention on 14 targeted behaviors. Results indicated a functional relation between the mSACR and the ability of students to request accommodations. Findings from this study are discussed along with limitations, suggestions for future research, and implications for educational practice.
Preparing all students to effectively transition to postsecondary settings is recognized as a primary goal of education. When students with disabilities exit high school, oftentimes, they are not as resourceful as students without disabilities to face the challenges they may encounter when transitioning to postschool settings (Mazzotti et al., 2013). Although postsecondary outcomes for young adults with disabilities have been improving, same-age peers without disabilities are still experiencing better outcomes (Newman et al., 2011). For example, results from the National Longitudinal Transition Survey–2 (NLTS2) for young adults with disabilities indicated that only 60% of young adults with disabilities enrolled in postsecondary programs in comparison with 67% of peers in the general population, and only 41% of students with disabilities completed postsecondary programs, while 52% of youth without disabilities did. Young adults with disabilities also earned a lower wage than their peers without disabilities.
To address the existing outcomes gap between students with and without disabilities and promote more positive postschool outcomes, researchers strongly support fostering self-determination practices in the school setting (e.g., Landmark et al., 2010; Roberts et al., 2014). According to Field et al. (1998), self-determination is “a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enables a person to engage in goal directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior” (p. 2). Incorporating self-determination practices into the curriculum and transition process empowers students with disabilities to take more control of their lives and decisions that may impact their lives. Particularly, self-advocacy, a critical component of self-determination, should be explicitly taught in schools (Roberts et al., 2014; Schreiner, 2007). Self-advocacy refers to “advocating on one’s own behalf. To advocate means to speak up or defend a cause or person” (Field et al., 1998, p. 10). Test et al. (2005) identified knowledge of self, knowledge of rights, communication, and leadership as components of self-advocacy.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2010), increasing numbers of students with disabilities are transitioning to postsecondary education settings, and this trend is expected to continue. Besides preparing students academically, researchers have maintained the importance of self-advocating in these settings (Garrison-Wade, 2012; Getzel & Thoma, 2008; Morningstar et al., 2010). Specifically, Getzel and Thoma (2008) asserted, “students with disabilities need self-determination skills to successfully transition to, adjust to, and remain in college” (p. 78). As college graduation, not just matriculation, is the goal for these students, they must become more aware of their changing roles and the new responsibilities that accompany these roles once they transition to college or other postsecondary settings.
At the postsecondary educational level, students are expected to self-disclose (i.e., identify themselves as having a disability) to receive accommodations, provide documentation to substantiate the need for accommodations, and communicate with faculty to receive those accommodations (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). Self-disclosing requires students to utilize their knowledge of their disabilities and the impact their disabilities have on learning to advocate for essential accommodations. Getzel and Thoma (2008) utilized focus group interviews with 34 college students who had self-disclosed to identify skills effective self-advocates use to persist in college and obtain supports. Initially, many of the students had not self-disclosed and failed academically. Subsequently, these students disclosed their disabilities and sought supports. All 34 participants agreed that knowing about themselves and their disabilities enabled them to remain in college. Without a clear understanding of their disabilities and the impact of those disabilities on their learning, students would be challenged to effectively articulate their needs. Garrison-Wade (2012) concluded that students with disabilities might not be arriving on college campuses with the necessary self-advocacy skills. In this study, students and disability coordinators identified a lack of disability awareness and knowledge of effective accommodations as barriers. Accordingly, participants voiced that students must have self-advocacy and self-awareness skills to request accommodations in postsecondary settings.
Teaching high school students to advocate for accommodations has been identified as an effective practice to enhance self-advocacy skills in preparation for the transition to postsecondary settings (e.g., Prater et al., 2014) and potentially reduce disability-related barriers in these settings (Kline & Kurz, 2014). Research supports acquiring these skills before students enter college and other postsecondary settings; however, there are limited studies evaluating the effects of instructional interventions on the ability of high school students to advocate for accommodations. Durlak et al. (1994) developed and evaluated a direct instructional training program to teach self-determination skills to eight high school students with a learning disability. Training occurred in groups of four. The intervention targeted seven self-advocacy and self-awareness skills (e.g., asking for clarification of lecture material, telling a teacher that one has a learning disability, or making an appointment with a teacher to discuss needs and/or accommodations). All students reached criterion for each of the seven tasks in 2 to 5 instructional trials, completed a maintenance check with a 100% performance rate 1 week after training ended, and completed 4.38 out of 5 generalization tasks within 1 to 2 weeks after the maintenance check. Limitations included students writing or stating the steps of a task during maintenance instead of role-playing the steps, and skill acquisition for generalization was determined by performing the skills in the resource room and not the general education setting.
In a recent study, Holzberg et al. (2019) examined the effects of an intervention that utilized direct instruction to teach students to advocate for accommodations. This intervention, the Self-Advocacy and Conflict Resolution (SACR; Rumrill et al., 1999) training program, was initially developed for college students. In studies with college students (e.g., Palmer & Roessler, 2000; Roessler et al., 1998; Walker & Test, 2011), findings have indicated improvements in the students’ abilities to request accommodations. Specifically, Walker and Test (2011) evaluated the effects of this intervention on the ability of three African American college students to request academic accommodations during role-plays. A functional relation was demonstrated between the SACR and the participants’ ability to request accommodations in role-play situations and to generalize those skills to meetings with their professors. Mastery attainment for the three participants occurred within 3 days of the introduction of the intervention. After 1 week, two participants maintained 91% of the identified behaviors, and one student maintained 73% of the behaviors. In the study with high school students, Holzberg et al. examined the effects of the SACR on the ability of high school seniors to request and negotiate accommodations. Although role-plays were a component of the intervention sessions, written probes were utilized to evaluate acquisition of target behaviors. Intervention sessions occurred in a tutoring room of a private school that specialized in the education of students with mild disabilities, and generalization data were collected on a university campus with a professor. Results indicated a functional relation between SACR instruction and students’ ability to request and negotiate accommodations. All students attained mastery in 4 days and maintained 18 or 19 out of the 19 skills after 1 week. Three of the students generalized between 17 and 19 of the skills with the professor on the college campus. Consequently, the SACR has been determined to be an effective intervention with both college and high school students when generalizing self-advocacy skills with a professor on a college campus. Thus, the SACR may also be an effective intervention when teaching high school students with disabilities to self-advocate for accommodations in the high school general education setting.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine if modified SACR (mSACR) instruction resulted in high school students with high-incidence disabilities acquiring the skills to request academic accommodations and then generalizing those skills with one of their general education teachers. This study was a systematic replication of Walker and Test (2011) that focused on the impact of the SACR on the ability of students to request academic accommodations. It differed from Walker and Test in the following ways: (a) grade levels of students, (b) intervention setting, (c) addition of student self-evaluations of role-plays, (d) inclusion of self-awareness and disability awareness component, and (e) generalization setting.
Research Questions
Research questions included:
1. Does instruction using the mSACR increase the ability of high school students with high-incidence disabilities to request academic accommodations in role-play simulations?
2. Does instruction using the mSACR increase the ability of high school students with disabilities to request academic accommodations in the general education classroom?
3. Do high school students with high-incidence disabilities believe the mSACR had a positive effect on their ability to identify their learning needs and accommodations to address those needs?
4. Do high school students with high-incidence disabilities and their teachers believe the mSACR had a positive effect on the ability of the students to request academic accommodations?
Method
Participants
Five high school students with high-incidence disabilities participated in this study. Criteria for inclusion were (a) status as a ninth-, 10th-, or 11th-grade student; (b) enrollment in a general education course without a co-teacher; (c) enrollment in a Learning Skills class; (d) postsecondary education goal in the Individualized Education Program (IEP) for attending college; (e) accommodations in the IEP; (f) attendance rate of 90% or better; and (g) no prior experience self-advocating for accommodations. Informed consent for student participants was garnered from parents, and assent was obtained from students. Each student was assigned a pseudonym. Consent was also received from the teachers from whom the students would be requesting their accommodations.
Monique
Monique was a 17-year-old African American female in the 11th grade. She was first evaluated and diagnosed with a learning disability as a sophomore in high school. Monique’s full-scale IQ was 67. The speed in which she processes information impairs her ability to respond in a timely and efficient manner and understand course content. Her disability impacts her performance in reading comprehension and math reasoning. In the classroom setting, Monique strives to do well and asks for assistance. Monique requested accommodations in her Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) class, a general education support class that includes writing, inquiry, collaboration, organization, and reading, along with tutorial study groups and study skills as strategies of the program. She requested extra time and a smaller setting for tests, graphic organizers, and more detailed explanations on new concepts.
La’Shay
La’Shay was a 14-year-old African American female in the ninth grade. She was evaluated and diagnosed with a learning disability prior to fifth grade. La’Shay’s full-scale IQ was 87. La’Shay’s disability specifically impacts her performance in basic reading, reading comprehension, vocabulary development, and math reasoning. In the classroom setting, La’Shay displays a strong work ethic, strives to do well, and works well with others. La’Shay requested accommodations in her reading class. She requested extra time and a smaller setting for tests and study guides.
Sasha
Sasha was a 16-year-old African American female in the 10th grade. She was evaluated and diagnosed with a learning disability in sixth grade. Previously, she was eligible for services under the other health impairment category. Sasha had a full-scale IQ of 73. Her disability impacts her reading comprehension, math calculation, and math reasoning. In the classroom, Sasha strives to do well and is becoming more confident in her abilities. She is also learning to work through her academic frustrations. Sasha requested accommodations in her Spanish class. She requested extra time and a smaller setting for tests and study supports.
John
John was a 14-year-old African American male in the ninth grade. John had a full-scale IQ of 122. He was first evaluated and diagnosed with an other health impairment (i.e., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]) in first grade. His ADHD affects his organizational skills and ability to maintain focus. In the classroom, John exhibits a strong work ethic, strengths in core subjects (i.e., English, math, science), and a keen interest in science. John requested accommodations in his English class. He requested extra time and smaller setting for tests and classroom motor breaks.
Todd
Todd was a 15-year-old African American male in the ninth grade. Todd had a full-scale IQ of 78. He was first evaluated and diagnosed with a learning disability in fourth grade. His disability impacts his basic reading skills, reading fluency, reading comprehension, and written expression. In the classroom, Todd is a respectful student who sometimes gets distracted and may become frustrated as reading tasks become more challenging. Todd benefits from praise, support, and redirection. Todd requested accommodations in his PreAlgebra class. He requested extra time for tests and copies of classroom notes.
Five female general education teachers also participated in this study. Students were permitted to choose the general education teacher from whom they would be requesting their accommodations. Speaking with a teacher for the first time about one’s disability might be daunting for a student, so students were allowed to select a teacher they would feel comfortable with while having this conversation. The teachers represented different content areas (i.e., PreAlgebra, English I, Reading, Spanish, and AVID). The math teacher was teaching for their first year, but the others had been teaching for 5 or more years. All of the teachers had experience teaching students with disabilities in their classes. In this high school, the special education teachers consulted with the general education teachers to make sure the appropriate accommodations were provided for the students in addition to the students advocating for themselves.
Setting
This study occurred in a public high school in the Midwestern part of the United States that had an approximate enrollment of 2,000 students, of which about 300 were students with disabilities. The racial/ethnic background of the high school was 90.5% Black, 1.8% White, and 5.8% Hispanic. Students from low-income households comprised almost 68% of the school population. Instruction, role-play assessments, and maintenance probes occurred in a conference room in the school. Generalization data were collected in the classrooms of the general education teachers who participated in the study.
Experimental Design
This study employed a multiple-probe-across-participants design (Gast, 2010) to evaluate the effects of the mSACR on the ability of high school students to request their academic accommodations during role-play assessments and in the general education classroom. The researcher was a doctoral candidate in Special Education who had 33 years of experience teaching students with high-incidence disabilities. The dependent variable in this study was the number of correctly demonstrated target behaviors exhibited by a participant during role-play assessments and in the general education setting when a participant was requesting academic accommodations. See Table 1 for the 14 target behaviors for requesting accommodations. Role-plays were assessed by the researcher during baseline, intervention, and maintenance.
Lessons, Target Behaviors, and Examples of Behaviors of the mSACR.
Note. mSACR = modified Self-Advocacy and Conflict Resolution; IEP = Individualized Education Program.
Generalization was measured by the students’ general education teachers, using a data collection sheet that included the same 14 target skills. Before the study began, the researcher met with the general education teachers to familiarize them with the data collection sheet and review the targeted behaviors. When necessary, the researcher modeled the targeted behaviors to clarify any confusion the teachers may have had. Prior to the postgeneralization meetings, the researcher met with the students’ general education teachers again to review the data collection sheet and targeted behaviors. This second meeting provided teachers an opportunity to address any questions they may have had regarding the targeted behaviors.
Procedures
Participants were excused from their Learning Skills class to meet individually with the researcher. The intervention consisted of 10 sessions, of which eight were instructional lessons. Session length varied from 15 to 70 min. The session length was dependent on the goals of the lesson and the complexity of the target behaviors for individual students. Because a class period was only 50 min, some sessions extended to the next day. The approximate duration of the study was 20 weeks from the pregeneralization meeting to the last maintenance probe.
During Week 1 of the study, the researcher met with each student to explain that they would be scheduling two meetings (i.e., pregeneralization and postgeneralization) with their teachers to request their accommodations from them. At the initial meetings, it was apparent most students were not familiar with the term accommodations. Thus, to prepare students, the researcher discussed the word “accommodation,” presented them with an accommodation from their IEPs, and familiarized them with the procedures for self-analyses. In the training sessions, students analyzed their role-play videos and wrote a self-reflection, with guidance from the researcher. For most students, self-analyzing a role-play and writing a reflection on this analysis was a new skill; therefore, students were able to reference a researcher-developed reflection poster if they needed talking points or ideas for their reflections. Prompting was provided from the researcher when needed. The reflection poster was developed with the intent of encouraging participation by providing a support and included questions (e.g., “Would I say or do anything differently next time?”) and open-ended statements (e.g., “From performing role-plays, I am learning . . .”) to assist students in generating ideas.
Pregeneralization
Prior to the baseline condition, students scheduled the first meeting (i.e., pregeneralization) with their teachers. Specifically, students were prompted to contact their teachers, schedule a meeting within 1 week, and request their accommodations from their teachers at the meeting. One student needed assistance with scheduling their meeting. After each meeting, students were evaluated by teachers on the 14 target skills. Students entered the baseline condition after the pregeneralization meetings.
Baseline
Each baseline session began by requesting the students to role-play how they would request classroom accommodations from their general education teachers. The researcher greeted the students when they arrived, but provided no instruction, feedback, or reinforcement regarding the accommodations-requesting process. All baseline role-plays were video recorded for data collection. Data were collected on the 14 target skills. Role-plays were conducted for all students during the first three sessions of the study until a stable baseline was achieved for one student. Probe sessions continued at least once a week for the other four students. After the first student in intervention completed Lesson 5, the next student with stable baseline data entered intervention. The same procedure was followed until all students entered intervention.
Intervention
The independent variable in this study was the mSACR, the modified version of the SACR. Originally, the SACR was developed to prepare postsecondary students with disabilities to appropriately self-advocate with their instructors for their academic accommodations and effectively negotiate compromises when necessary. The SACR comprised two modules: a self-advocacy phase and a conflict resolution phase. The mSACR consisted of the seven lessons of the self-advocacy module of the SACR along with a researcher-created disability awareness component. The seven lessons included 14 target skills (see Table 1 for the lessons and skills associated with each lesson). All lessons were scripted, and each lesson plan followed a standard format. The researcher described the skill, identified the goal of the skill, provided skill examples, modeled the skill, practiced the skill with the student, and finally had the student role-play the new skill and any previously learned skills. The seven lessons of the mSACR were presented in Sessions 2 to 8. During these sessions, students received an mSACR lesson template that outlined the new lesson and target skills. They stored these templates in a binder and could reference them in a session as long as it was not during the role-play assessment. General reinforcement and corrective feedback were only provided during the repeated practice component of a lesson. Role-play assessments occurred during Sessions 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
Session 1
A disability awareness lesson was presented to each student. This component included a discussion of the students’ disabilities, their strengths and needs, and accommodations specifically outlined in their IEPs. The scripted lesson began with a statement of the objective, a review of vocabulary terms, and examples of terms that were used in the lesson (i.e., disabilities, strengths, needs, and accommodations). At the end of the lesson, each student completed a Disability Awareness Graphic Organizer. This organizer had four columns and included the following headings: disability area, learning strengths, functional needs, and accommodations. Students received a copy of their IEP at a Glance report from Easy IEP™ to review their disability areas and accommodations.
Session 2
Lesson 1 of mSACR was introduced. Students practiced how to greet a teacher as well as introduce themselves to the teacher by including their names and the class they were enrolled in with that teacher. For example, a student may have said, “Hello, I’m Don Smith, and I’m in your 4th period Career Tech class.” Session 2 ended with the researcher summarizing Lesson 1.
Session 3
The target skills from Lesson 1 were reviewed using the SACR poster as a visual. This poster included the 14 target skills and examples of each of the skills (see Table 1). The student was then video recorded role-playing the steps for requesting accommodations. Next, the student viewed the role-play and wrote a reflection. Finally, the student and researcher discussed the role-play and self-reflection. Lesson 2 of mSACR was then introduced and practiced. In this lesson, students learned how to state their disability to a teacher and explain how their disability impacts their learning and/or functioning in the class. For example, a student may have said, “I have a learning disability in reading, and it takes me a very long time to read a short story or a chapter in a textbook.” At the end of this session, the researcher reviewed Lessons 1 and 2.
Session 4
The researcher referenced the SACR poster to review the skills from Lessons 1 and 2. The student was video recorded role-playing the steps for requesting accommodations. Next, the student viewed the role-play and wrote a reflection. Finally, the student and researcher discussed the role-play and reflection. Lesson 3 of mSACR was then introduced and practiced. During Lesson 3, students practiced how to state an accommodation that was in their IEP, explained how this accommodation would benefit them in the class, and requested to use that accommodation in the class. A student may have said, “In the past I have listened to electronic books to keep up with the daily readings. This accommodation allows me to participate in class discussions. In this class I would like to use electronic books as well.” At the end of this session, the researcher reviewed Lessons 1 through 3.
Session 5
The SACR poster was referenced to review target skills from Lessons 1 through 3. The student was video recorded role-playing the steps for requesting accommodations. Next, the student viewed the role-play and wrote a reflection. Finally, the student and researcher discussed the role-play and reflection. Lesson 4 of mSACR was then introduced and practiced. In Lesson 4, students learned to identify available resources they could use to implement the accommodation and explain their responsibility for the accommodation. At this point, a student may have said, “I will work with my IEP teacher to access the electronic copies of the readings.” Lesson 4 included an accountability component in which the student took responsibility for accessing the accommodation. The researcher ended the session by summarizing Lessons 1 through 4.
Session 6
The researcher referenced the SACR poster to review target skills from Lessons 1 through 4. The student was video recorded role-playing the steps for requesting accommodations. Next, the student viewed the role-play and wrote a reflection. Finally, the student and researcher discussed the role-play and reflection. Lesson 5 of mSACR was then introduced and practiced. During Lesson 5, students learned to ask the teachers for agreement with the accommodation plan and how to reply with an affirmative statement. A student may have responded by saying, “Will our plan work for you? Sounds good.” The session concluded with the researcher summarizing Lessons 1 through 5.
Session 7
The researcher referenced the SACR poster to review target skills from Lessons 1 through 5. The student was video recorded role-playing the steps for requesting accommodations. Next, the student viewed the role-play and wrote a reflection. Finally, the student and researcher discussed the role-play and reflection. Lesson 6 of mSACR was introduced and practiced. In Lesson 6, students acquired the skills to restate the accommodation and identify both the student’s and the teacher’s responsibilities. A student may have learned to say, “On testing days I’ll plan to have my tests read by the resource room teacher. If you let me know a few days ahead of time, I can make the arrangements with the resource room teacher.” The session ended when the researcher summarized Lessons 1 through 6.
Session 8
The researcher referenced the SACR poster to review target skills from Lessons 1 through 6. The student was video recorded role-playing the steps for requesting accommodations. Next, the student viewed the role-play and wrote a reflection. Finally, the student and researcher discussed the role-play and reflection. Lesson 7 of mSACR was then introduced and practiced. During Lesson 7, the student learned how to provide closure by making a positive statement about the teacher, the class, the accommodation plan, or by expressing appreciation for the teacher’s help. A student may have said, “I’m so glad you understand how important this accommodation is to me. Thanks so much.” The session concluded when the researcher summarized Lessons 1 through 7.
Sessions 9 to 10
The researcher referenced the SACR poster to review target skills from Lessons 1 through 7. The student was video recorded role-playing the steps for requesting accommodations. Next, the student viewed the role-play and wrote a reflection. Finally, the student and researcher discussed the role-play and reflection. At the end of Session 10, the student may have achieved the mastery criterion and moved from intervention to generalization. The mastery criterion was 100% of correctly demonstrated target behaviors for two consecutive days. If a student did not attain the mastery criterion, a booster session and additional role-play sessions were provided.
Intervention booster sessions
During booster sessions, the student and researcher conducted error analyses while viewing the role-play videos to identify skills that needed to be reviewed and practiced. Additional sessions were provided until all target skills were displayed for two consecutive role-plays. Subsequent sessions included a review of skills using the SACR poster, a role-play, and a student reflection.
Postgeneralization
After reaching mastery, students were prompted to contact their teachers, request a meeting within a week, and request their accommodations at this meeting. Once again, students were evaluated by teachers on the 14 target skills. Due to unforeseen circumstances (e.g., scheduling conflicts, student nervousness, and spring vacation), none of these meetings happened within the week time frame. Consequently, these meetings occurred between 2 and 3 weeks after reaching mastery.
Maintenance
Maintenance role-play probes were administered by the researcher 2, 4, and 6 weeks after each student met the mastery criterion. Data were collected on the 14 target skills. No review, instruction, or feedback were provided.
Interobserver Reliability and Procedural Fidelity
A former special education teacher collected interobserver agreement (IOA) reliability data and procedural fidelity. Role-play probes in baseline, intervention, and maintenance were video recorded for data collection. For IOA, the percentage of agreement was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the total number of agreements and disagreements and then multiplying by 100. The formula for procedural fidelity was the number of observed behaviors divided by the number of planned behaviors multiplied by 100.
Social Validity
Students and general education teachers completed social validity questionnaires that included Likert-type scales (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree). Students rated their ability to advocate for academic accommodations after instruction with the mSACR, the usefulness of the intervention and disability protocol, and the most challenging aspects of the intervention. General education teachers evaluated the benefits of teaching students to advocate for accommodations and the effectiveness of the intervention.
Results
Interobserver Reliability and Procedural Fidelity
IOA data were collected for 35% of all sessions across baseline, intervention, and maintenance. Mean IOA data across all sessions was 97% (range = 86%–100%). Procedural fidelity data were collected for 33% (range 30%–38%) of all sessions across baseline, intervention, and maintenance conditions. Mean procedural fidelity across all sessions was 100%.
Requesting Accommodations in Role-Play Simulations and the General Classroom
To determine the effect of the mSACR on the ability of students to request accommodations, the number of correctly demonstrated target behaviors was evaluated. Figure 1 illustrates a functional relation as shown through the graphical display of the number of target behaviors students demonstrated during role-play assessments across all conditions.
Number of target behaviors demonstrated during role-plays.
Monique
During baseline, Monique did not demonstrate any target behaviors. Between baseline and intervention, there was an absolute level change of 3 and a relative change of 5.5, indicating an abrupt change in level in a therapeutic direction after the introduction of mSACR. The percent of nonoverlapping data (PND) between conditions was 100%. Within intervention, Monique’s scores ranged from 3 to 14 (21%–100%). She attained mastery in 10 sessions. During maintenance, Monique displayed an average of 10.7 of the skills (76%) over a 6-week period. Monique exhibited eight of the target behaviors (57%) at her postgeneralization meeting, a 28% increase. She did not demonstrate target behaviors 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 11.
La’Shay
La’Shay demonstrated 3 target behaviors (i.e., greet teacher, identify accommodation, and request accommodation) in all baseline probes. Upon introduction of mSACR, the absolute change in level was zero. However, there was a change in trend from zero accelerating to accelerating in a therapeutic direction with a relative change between conditions of 2.5, indicating a gradual change in level. PND was 87.5%. Within the intervention condition, La’Shay’s scores ranged from 3 to 14 (21%–100% of the target behaviors) indicating a continually accelerating trend in a therapeutic direction. La’Shay met the mastery criterion in 10 sessions. During maintenance, La’Shay displayed an average of 12 skills (86%) over the 6-week period. La’Shay exhibited 12 of the target behaviors (86%) at her postgeneralization meeting, an increase of 72% of the skills. She did not demonstrate target behaviors 12 and 13.
Sasha
Sasha’s scores ranged from 1 to 4 with a mean of 2.88 and a median of 3 during baseline. After introducing mSACR, there was a gradual change in level in a therapeutic direction (i.e., absolute change of 1 and a relative change of 4). PND was 87.5%. Within the intervention condition, Sasha’s scores ranged from 4 to 14 (29%–100% of the target behaviors) indicating an accelerating trend in a therapeutic direction. After booster sessions were provided, Sasha attained mastery in 13 sessions. During maintenance, she displayed an average of 13 skills (93%) over the 6-week period. Sasha exhibited 11 of the target behaviors (79%) at her postgeneralization meeting, an increase of 36% of the skills. She did not demonstrate target behaviors 6, 9, and 13.
John
During baseline, John’s scores ranged from 2 to 3 with a mean of 2.2 and a median of 2. Upon introduction of the mSACR, an immediate and abrupt change in level was indicated by an absolute level change of 4 and a relative change of 4.5 in a therapeutic direction. PND was 100%. John’s scores ranged from 6 to 14 (43%–100% of the target behaviors) indicating an accelerating trend in a therapeutic direction, and he attained mastery in 10 sessions. During maintenance, John displayed all 14 skills (100%) over the 6-week period. John exhibited 14 of the target behaviors (100%) at his postgeneralization meeting, an increase of 86% of the skills.
Todd
During baseline, Todd’s scores ranged from 2 to 3 with a mean of 2.9 and a median of 3. Upon introduction of the mSACR, there was a gradual change in level (i.e., absolute change of 1 and a relative change of 2.5) in a therapeutic direction. PND between conditions was 100%. In the intervention condition, Todd’s scores ranged from 4 to 14 (29%–100% of the target behaviors) indicating an accelerating trend in a therapeutic direction. He attained mastery in 10 sessions. During maintenance, he demonstrated an average of 13 skills (93%) over the 6-week period. Todd displayed nine of the target behaviors (64%) at his postgeneralization meeting, an increase of 28% of the skills. He did not demonstrate target behaviors 2, 8, 9, 12, and 13.
Social Validity
Teachers believed students learned to request accommodations (M = 3.4, range 3–4), and all students would benefit from self-advocacy training (M = 4). Students confirmed the mSACR positively impacted their ability to identify their needs and request accommodations (M = 3.6, range 3–4). Students also stated they now have the skills to request accommodations (M = 3.6, range 3–4) and would prefer to self-advocate rather than have a teacher advocate for them (M = 3.2, range 3–4). However, students indicated that remembering 14 target behaviors was challenging.
Discussion
Findings from this study indicated a functional relation between the mSACR and the ability of students with disabilities to effectively request their accommodations, as evidenced by five demonstrations of effect. In addition to acquiring skills to effectively request accommodations, students in the current study maintained between 71% and 100% of the skills from 2 weeks to 6 weeks after exiting the intervention condition. Results from the present study indicated that students maintained most of the target skills after exiting the intervention condition.
Generalization results of the current study were favorable. Students displayed between 8 (57%) and 14 (100%) of the target skills. This is noteworthy because these students had no previous experience disclosing their disability and requesting accommodations. In fact, most of those students were not even familiar with the term accommodation before the initiation of the study. Nevertheless, students were generalizing important target skills to authentic settings as a result of the intervention. Furthermore, if students continue to request accommodations, teachers may better understand students’ needs and the supports to address their needs.
Several factors may have enhanced the accommodations request process. First, findings from the current study, as well as previous studies promoting the acquisition of self-advocacy skills (i.e., Holzberg et al., 2019; Palmer & Roessler, 2000; Roessler et al., 1998; Walker & Test, 2011), support the implementation of explicit instructional practices (e.g., modeling, repeated skills practice, feedback, and role-plays) to enhance the ability of students to request accommodations. Next, the acquisition of effective communication skills is essential to the self-advocacy process (Test et al., 2005). Each lesson of the mSACR provided students with an opportunity to observe skills being demonstrated and participate in repeated practices to hone the needed skills. Repeated practices may have also afforded students an opportunity to make conversations more natural. For example, after a lesson was presented, Todd changed his wording several times until he determined exactly how he wanted to convey the information.
During the first meeting with students, only John acknowledged he was aware of the term and purpose of accommodations. Consequently, the disability awareness lesson assisted students in acquiring the foundational skills. Equipping students with these skills while in high school may facilitate the college self-advocacy process. During an intervention session, Sasha asked, “How will students know what to do in college if they do not learn it in high school?” This question reinforces the importance of learning to self-advocate in high school.
Opportunities for self-evaluation promoted student-led discussions instead of researcher-led discussions, even though some reflections were very brief. For most students, self-analyzing a role-play and writing a reflection on this analysis was a new skill; therefore, students were able to reference the reflection poster for ideas. Scaffolding supports, such as this poster, may be necessary to increase student risk-taking behaviors by encouraging them to perform new skills.
Serendipitous findings (i.e., positive outcomes from the study that were not expected) are also worth discussing. To begin with, Sasha decided she would benefit from an additional accommodation in her Spanish class, even though it was not included on her IEP. After observing the researcher model the accommodation process and request a note-taking accommodation for a fictitious student, Sasha determined she would also benefit from having a note-taking accommodation. Sasha then proceeded to incorporate this accommodation into future role-play requests. Furthermore, a conversation with Todd’s general education teacher resulted in another unanticipated, yet positive finding. This teacher recognized other students besides Todd were experiencing spelling difficulties that sometimes limited their responses on math quizzes. To address Todd’s needs, as well as others’ in her class, this teacher chose to modify the format of her quizzes by including a matching section for vocabulary instead of having students write the words or definitions. Thus, other students with and without disabilities may benefit from teachers’ awareness of the needs of their students and the supports that may benefit them.
Social validity data indicated students overwhelmingly agreed they learned to identify their needs and accommodations and understand the benefits of self-advocating for those accommodations. A strong indicator that learning to self-advocate was important to these students was their voluntary participation in this study. Students had an option to withdraw from the study at any time for any reason; yet, they all remained and actively participated in each session.
The general education teachers’ willingness to participate in the study indicated the importance teachers assigned to the skill of requesting accommodations. This is notable because expectations for teachers continue to increase, and time is very limited; yet, these teachers were willing to volunteer time to help students practice these skills. Because teachers in this study represented various content areas (e.g., English, math, reading, Spanish), one can conclude that teachers across the curriculum not only see the benefit of teaching all students to self-advocate but recognize this as an area of need in many of their students. This unanimous support validates the social significance of students acquiring this life skill before they matriculate to college.
Limitations and Future Research
By objectively identifying the limitations of research, future studies may take shape (Gast, 2010). Students being prompted to schedule their meetings with their teachers was a limitation. Having students continue to request accommodations from multiple teachers throughout the school year would not only further support the experimental effect, but it may eliminate the need for prompting. Furthermore, collecting maintenance data for extended time periods (e.g., 3 months, 6 months, or 9 months) would confirm if students are independently maintaining the skills. Moreover, future research could evaluate long-term outcomes (e.g., improved grades, improved self-advocacy or self-determination skills, better testing results, graduation, resource room utilization, or persistence and use of accommodations in high school and postsecondary settings) of students’ self-advocacy.
The general education teachers evaluating students on the advocacy steps was another limitation. They had to complete these evaluations after the fact and rely on their memory. Therefore, additional training could be provided to better familiarize teachers with the target skills. Furthermore, as students more frequently request accommodations throughout the school year, teachers will become more aware of the steps or target behaviors. It may also be beneficial to audio record the teacher meetings for more accurate data collection. This could be done very discreetly and not take away from the authenticity of the self-advocacy process.
Implications for Practice
The focus of the current study was to equip students with the skills to request accommodations in high school in preparation for the transition to college; however, students with disabilities may also need to seek supports in other secondary and postsecondary settings (e.g., employment and independent living). Therefore, self-advocacy interventions could be modified to prepare students to advocate for supports in work sites in high school or other postschool settings. In addition, when working with students who have more significant processing or language deficits, the number of target behaviors in the advocacy process could be reduced, or students could use a checklist with target behaviors that may include picture cues.
Finally, it may be unrealistic to believe all teachers would have time to incorporate a structured intervention (e.g., SACR) into their lesson plans. It may be more feasible to teach practitioners how to incorporate self-advocacy strategies into the general education curriculum. For example, in the beginning of a school year, any teacher could incorporate a self-awareness component into their lesson plans. In this lesson, students would complete a learner profile to identify their strengths, needs, and preferences, in addition to supports that benefit them.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.