Understanding Love in Couple Relationships: A Scoping Review of Sternberg’s Triangular Theory

Abstract

In recent decades, research on love has expanded considerably, underscoring its relevance for individual well-being and relationship functioning. Despite this growth, conceptualizing and empirically operationalizing love remain challenging. Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love, one of the most influential frameworks in the field, conceptualizes love as comprising three core components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. This scoping review aims to synthesize empirical studies that have applied Sternberg’s theory to couple relationships, with the objectives of examining how the theory has been operationalized and of identifying relational variables associated with its components. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, 27 studies were included. All employed cross-sectional designs, and most samples were drawn from non-European countries. Overall, findings indicate that Sternberg’s theory remains theoretically coherent and empirically supported in the study of conjugal relationships. The three love components were consistently associated with key relational indicators, including relationship satisfaction, relationship seriousness, and sexual satisfaction. However, evidence regarding associations with relationship length and sexual orientation was mixed and inconclusive. This review highlights both the continued relevance of Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love and important gaps in the literature, pointing to directions for future research on love in diverse couple contexts.

Keywords

triangular theory of love intimacy passion commitment couple relationships scoping review

Introduction

Love has been a variable of interest for researchers and has been examined by numerous authors over recent decades (e.g., Cassepp-Borges et al., 2023; Madey & Rodgers, 2009; Rokach, 2024). Among many theories of love, Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love has been particularly influential and has been tested with samples from diverse cultural contexts (e.g., Clemente et al., 2020; Graham, 2011; Hernandez et al., 2014; Sorokowska et al., 2023; Sorokowski et al., 2021; Sorokowski et al., 2023).

Sternberg (1986) noted that prior research tended to fragment the phenomenon of love and proposed that it is best conceptualized as comprising three interrelated components — intimacy, passion, and commitment — each reflecting different aspects of relational experience within romantic relationships. According to Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love, these three components can metaphorically be represented as the vertices of a triangle (Sternberg, 1986, 1988, 1997). Intimacy involves feelings of closeness, connectedness, communication, and bonding. Passion refers to the drives that give rise to romance, physical attraction, and sexual consummation. Decision/commitment reflects the certainty of loving and being loved, as well as the decision to maintain the relationship over the long term (Sternberg, 1997). Different combinations of these three components give rise to distinct types of love: Non-love, characterized by the absence of all three components; Liking, characterized by the presence of intimacy without passion or commitment; Infatuated love, characterized by the presence of passion without intimacy or commitment; Empty love, characterized by commitment without intimacy or passion; Romantic love, resulting from the combination of intimacy and passion; Companionate love, resulting from the combination of intimacy and commitment; Fatuous love, resulting from the combination of passion and commitment; and Consummate (or complete) love, representing the full combination of all three components. It is important to note, however, that no relationship embodies a completely pure form of any single type of love, as most relationships include all three components to varying degrees (Sternberg, 1997).

Although Sternberg’s model was originally developed to describe romantic relationships (Sternberg, 1986, 1988, 1997), it has been applied to a wide range of domains beyond romantic contexts. Examples include athletic performance (e.g., Campbell et al., 2016), people’s attachment to cars and petroleum products (e.g., Khatai & Ladsaria, 2023), brand love (e.g., Huber et al., 2016), customer relationships (e.g., Bugel et al., 2011), and customer switching behavior (e.g., Amani, 2022). These applications highlight the versatility of the model in capturing relational and affective dynamics across diverse contexts.

Love and couple relationships play a crucial role in adulthood, influencing individuals’ physical and psychological well-being (Almutairi et al., 2025; Khani et al., 2023; Sorokowski et al., 2021). Love has been linked to numerous relational variables, including dyadic adjustment (Garcia et al., 2017), sexual satisfaction (Sánchez-Fuentes et al., 2014), relationship satisfaction (Cassepp-Borges et al., 2023; Nabila & Gunawan, 2023), attachment (Madey & Rodgers, 2009; Paquette et al., 2020), and conflict resolution tactics (García et al., 2016; Garcia et al., 2017; Paquette et al., 2020). Despite extensive research, findings are heterogeneous, and love has often been operationalized in diverse ways, frequently not using Sternberg’s model. Moreover, many studies do not report important sample characteristics, such as participants’ sexual orientation (Totenhagen et al., 2023), which limits comparability and generalizability. Given these inconsistencies and gaps, a scoping review is particularly well suited to synthesize the current state of knowledge regarding Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love and its application to couple relationships (Cebral-Loureda et al., 2024).

This scoping review aims to synthesize the literature on the application of Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love in studies of couple relationships. Specifically, it seeks to map and describe the characteristics of studies that have applied the theory (aim 1), to explore how the construct of love has been operationalized and assessed (aim 2), and to identify which relational variables and dimensions of couple functioning have been analyzed (aim 3). Furthermore, the review aims to examine how the components of love, as defined by Sternberg’s triangular model, are associated with different aspects of couple relationships (aim 4). By addressing these objectives, the review provides a comprehensive overview of the application of the theory and highlights patterns, gaps, and directions for future research.

Method

Protocol and Registration

This scoping review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines and was prospectively registered in PROSPERO (Registration ID: CRD42024445685).

Guiding Research Question and Objectives

The review was guided by the primary research question: “How has Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love been examined in the literature with respect to romantic relationships?” This question informed the search strategy, study selection, and data extraction. The specific objectives, as outlined in the Introduction section, were to: (1) Map and describe the characteristics of studies applying Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love; (2) Examine how the construct of love has been operationalized and assessed; (3) Identify which relational and individual variables have been analyzed; and (4) Explore associations between the components of love and various aspects of couple relationships.

Search Strategy

An initial search was conducted across four electronic databases (B-On, Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed) to identify empirical studies published in English, Portuguese, or Spanish, with no restrictions on the year of publication. The following search terms were applied to titles and abstracts: (“triangular theory of love” OR “Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love” OR “Triangular Love Scale” OR “Theory of Love”) AND (relationship OR “couple relationship” OR “dyadic adjustment” OR “relationship satisfaction” OR “relationship quality” OR partner OR couples OR marital). Duplicate records were identified and removed manually by the authors, who sorted articles by title and author names using Microsoft Excel.

Eligibility Criteria and Study Selection

Eligible studies were original empirical investigations involving human participants who were in romantic relationships. The following inclusion criteria were applied: studies conducted in humans; samples including couples or individuals in a relationship; studies written in English, Spanish, or Portuguese; empirical quantitative studies; studies guided by Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love as the theoretical framework; and studies in which the primary objective involved analyzing associations between love and at least one indicator of relationship quality. Studies were excluded if they examined love in non-relational or non-human contexts (e.g., love branding), were guided by theoretical frameworks other than Sternberg’s model, exclusively address psychometric analyses, were case reports, reviews, qualitative studies, meta-analyses, or gray literature, or involved replicated data.

A standard coding form was used during screening (0 = exclusion, 1 = inclusion, 2 = uncertain). Two authors independently screened all titles and abstracts against the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and discrepancies (16.28%) were resolved through discussion and consensus. The full texts of qualifying articles—those coded as included or uncertain—were then independently reviewed by both authors using the same criteria, with discrepancies during this phase (9.78%) also resolved through discussion and consensus.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

Data were extracted using a structured form developed for this review. For each study, the following information was recorded: year of publication; country of origin; language; study design; study aims; variables analyzed; sample characteristics; assessment instruments; and main findings regarding the associations between love and other variables. Results were synthesized using a qualitative descriptive approach, grouping concepts and findings by thematic similarity in line with the objectives of the scoping review.

Results

A total of 465 records were initially identified across four electronic databases (B-On, Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed). After removal of duplicates, 207 records were excluded. The titles and abstracts of the remaining records were screened according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, resulting in the exclusion of 166 irrelevant studies. Despite additional efforts to retrieve missing manuscripts, nine studies could not be accessed in full text and were therefore excluded.

Full-text screening was conducted for the 83 remaining articles, of which 56 did not meet the eligibility criteria and were excluded. Ultimately, 27 studies met all inclusion criteria and were included in the final synthesis.

A detailed overview of the screening and selection process is presented in Figure 1, following the PRISMA-ScR flow diagram format.

Figure 1.

PRISMA-SCR flow diagram

Study Characteristics

To address the first objective of this scoping review, we examined the geographical distribution, publication period, sample characteristics, and study designs of the included studies. This analysis provides an overview of the contexts in which Sternberg’s Triangular Love Theory has been applied and the populations studied.

Most of the included studies were conducted in the United States (approximately 33.3%; 9/27) and European countries (29.6%; 8/27). Approximately 22.2% (6/27) were carried out in Brazil, 7.4% (2/27) in other South American countries (Chile and Peru), and 7.4% (2/27) in Iran.

The majority of studies (85.2%; 23/27) were published from 2000 onward, with 40.7% (11/27) published in the last decade. Most studies (81.5%; 22/27) were conducted with samples of individuals in a relationship, whereas only 18.5% (5/27) included samples composed of couples. One study specifically included a sample of women who had experienced relationship violence.

All studies that included couples in the sample (18.5%) examined exclusively heterosexual relationships. Among studies including only individuals in a relationship, most (66.7%) involved heterosexual samples or did not specify sexual orientation, whereas only 14.8% (4/27) included both heterosexual and homosexual participants.

Regarding sample size, most studies (85.2%; 23/27) included up to 300 participants, while only one study (3.7%) included more than 1,000 participants (M = 232.96; SD = 205.20; Min = 55; Max = 1,042; Median = 184).

All included studies employed a cross-sectional design (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Characteristics of Studies Applying Sternberg’s Triangular Love Theory to Examine Dimensions of Conjugality (N = 27)

	n	%
Region of papers
USA	9	33.33
Europe (Spain, Poland, Germany, Russia, Slovakia, Belgium, Cyprus, Romania)	8	29.6
Brazil	6	22.2
Other countries of South America (Chile and Peru)	2	7.4
Iran	2	7.4
Year of papers
Before 2000	4	14.81
From 2000 onwards	23	85.19
Last decade	11	40.74
Samples
Of individuals in a relationship	22	81.48
With couples	5	18.52
Samples size
Up to 300 participants	23	85.19
Between 300 and 1,000 participants	3	11.11
More than 1,000 participants	1	3.70

Operationalization of Love and Associated Variables

To address the second and third objectives of this scoping review, we examined how the construct of love was operationalized in the included studies and which relational and additional variables were analyzed in association with its components. Most studies (88.9%; 24/27) employed the Sternberg Triangular Love Scale to measure love, whereas 11.1% (3/27) used researcher-developed instruments.

Regarding conjugal variables, relationship satisfaction was the most frequently examined (44.4%; 12/27), followed by relationship status (25.9%; 7/27) and relationship length (22.2%; 6/27). Attachment and infidelity were each examined in 11.1% (3/27) of the studies, and sexual satisfaction and sexual orientation were included in 7.4% (2/27) of the studies (see Table 2). Other conjugal variables were examined in only one study each, including dyadic adjustment, communication, engagement in sexting, conflict resolution tactics, type of relationship (mediated or not mediated by the internet), reproductive success, marriage criteria, investment model, emotional dependence, subjective experiences of love, and pregnancy trimesters.

Table 2.

Dimensions of Conjugality Examined in Relation to the Love Construct (N = 27)

	n	%
Relationship satisfaction	12	44.44
Relationship status	7	25.93
Relationship length	6	22.22
Attachment	3	11.11
Infidelity	3	11.11
Sexual satisfaction	2	7.41
Sexual orientation	2	7.41
Dyadic adjustment	1	3.70
Communication	1	3.70
Engagement in sexting	1	3.70
Conflict resolution tactics	1	3.70
Type of relationship – mediated/not mediated by internet	1	3.70
Reproductive success	1	3.70
Marriage criteria	1	3.70
Investment model	1	3.70
Emotional dependence	1	3.70
Subjective experiences of love	1	3.70
Pregnancy trimesters	1	3.70

Several studies (40.7%; 11/27) also examined sociodemographic variables, namely gender, age, and education, in relation to love (see Supplemental S1 for detailed results).

In addition, some studies analyzed variables outside the conjugal or sociodemographic domains in association with love, including personality (11.1%; 3/27), psychological wellbeing (3.7%; 1/27), depression (3.7%; 1/27), pornography (3.7%; 1/27), and religion (3.7%; 1/27) (see Supplemental Table S2 for detailed results).

Associations Between Love Components and Conjugal Variables

To address the final objective of this scoping review, we analyzed how the components of love—intimacy, passion, and commitment—were associated with different aspects of couple relationships across the included studies (see Table 3).

Table 3.

Associations Between Love Components and Other Conjugal Variables

Variable	Paper	Results
Relationship satisfaction	Rizzon, A. L. C., Mosmann, C. P., & Wagner, A. (2013). A qualidade conjugal e os elementos do amor: um estudo correlacional. Contextos Clínicos, 6(1), 41-49. doi: 10.4013/ctc.2013.61.05	Positive correlation between marital satisfaction, the variables of the ETAS scale and the subjects’ education level.
		The higher the values of the Commitment component, Intimacy, Passion and the level of education, the higher the marital satisfaction rates.
	Mônego, B. G., & Teodoro, M. L. M. T. (2011). A teoria triangular do amor de Sternberg e o modelo dos cinco grandes fatores Sternberg's triangular theory of love and the big five factor model. Psico-USF, 16(1), 97-105. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-82712011000100011	The constructs intimacy and passion contributed positively to satisfaction. Commitment did not achieve statistical significance.
	Acker, M., & Davis, M. (1992). Intimacy, Passion and Commitment in Adult Romantic Relationships: A Test of the Triangular Theory of Love. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 9, 21-50. doi: 10.1177/0265407592091002	Commitment, intimacy and passion contributed to satisfaction.
	Lemieux, R., & Hale, J. L. (2000). Intimacy, passion, and commitment among married individuals: Further testing of the triangular theory of love. Psychological Reports, 87, 941-948. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2000.87.3.941	The three components of love were predictors of Satisfaction.
		For men, the Commitment was the strongest predictor, followed by Passion and intimacy.
		For women, Intimacy was the strongest predictor, followed by Passion and Commitment.
	Haack, K. R., & Falcke, D. (2014). Love and Marital Quality in Romantic Relationships Mediated and Non-Mediated by Internet. Paidéia, 24(57), 105-113. doi:10.1590/1982-43272457201413	The marital quality was positively correlated with the three love components and the general STLS score.
	Panayiotou, G. (2005). Love, commitment, and response to conflict among Cypriot dating couples: Two models, one relationship. International Journal of Psychology, 40(2), 108-117. DOI: 10.1080/00207590444000230	Commitment, passion, and intimacy were positively correlated with satisfaction.
	Cassepp-Borgess, V., & Teodoro, M. L. M. (2009). Versión Reducida de la Escala Triangular del Amor: Características del Sentimiento em Brasil. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 43(1), 30-38.	The dimension of intimacy is the one that contributes most to relationship satisfaction, followed by passion and commitment.
	Levy, M. B., & Davis, K. E. (1988). Lovestyles and attachment styles compared: Their relations to each other and to various relationship characteristics. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5, 439-471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588054004	Intimacy, Passion and Commitment have a strong positive correlations among satisfaction.
	Fadaki, S. M. J., & Amani, P. (2015). Relationship of love and marital satisfaction with pornography among married university students in Birjand, Iran. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 17(5), 240-246.	In general, a positive significant relationship was found between the components of love with marital satisfaction. However, results from Pearson correlation coefficient showed a negative significant relationship between the components of love (intimacy, passion, commitment) and marital satisfaction with pornography in investigated students.
	Cassepp-Borges, V. (2020). Should I Stay or Should I Go? Relationship Satisfaction, Love, Love Styles and Religion Compatibility Predicting the Fate of Relationships. Sexuality & Culture. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-020-09798-2	A very high degree of satisfaction can make people continue the relationship the way it is. Love was a predictor of the relationship continuity. Commitment is the dimension that is most strongly associated with the future status of a relationship.
	Madey, S. F., & Rodgers, L. (2009). The effect of attachment and sternberg's triangular theory of love on relationship satisfaction. Individual Differences Research, 7(2), 76-84.	The effects of secure-insecure attachment on relationship satisfaction are mediated by intimacy and commitment. A more secure attachment predicts intimacy and commitment, which in turn predict greater relationship satisfaction. Findings suggest that intimacy and commitment are the paths through which secure attachment can lead to relationship satisfaction.
	Engel, G., Olson, K. R., & Patrick, C. (2002). The Personality of Love: Fundamental Motives and Traits Related to Components of Love. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(5), 839-853. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00090-3	Relationship satisfaction showed moderately high correlations with the love variables.
Relationship Status	Mônego, B. G., & Teodoro, M. L. M. T. (2011). A teoria triangular do amor de Sternberg e o modelo dos cinco grandes fatores Sternberg's triangular theory of love and the big five factor model. Psico-USF, 16(1), 97-105. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-82712011000100011	Less serious relationships had lower levels of love.
	Lemieux, R., & Hale, J. L. (2002). Cross-Sectional Analysis of Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment: Testing the Assumptions of the Triangular Theory of Love. Psychological Reports, 90(3), 1009-1014. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.90.3.1009-1014	The Intimacy, Passion and Commitment scores indicated that the scores of casually dating individuals were significantly lower than the scores of those who were exclusively dating, engaged, or married.
	Gao, G. (2001). Intimacy, passion, and commitment in Chinese and US American romantic relationships. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 329.342. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(01)00007-4	Intimacy, passion, and commitment would increase as the relationship becomes more serious: Engaged couples are highest in commitment, passion, and intimacy components, while serious couples have medium scores and casual couples have the lowest mean scores.
	Panayiotou, G. (2005). Love, commitment, and response to conflict among Cypriot dating couples: Two models, one relationship. International Journal of Psychology, 40(2), 108-117. DOI: 10.1080/00207590444000230	Relationship seriousness was positively related to Sternberg model.
	Cassepp-Borgess, V., & Teodoro, M. L. M. (2009). Versión Reducida de la Escala Triangular del Amor: Características del Sentimiento em Brasil. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 43(1), 30-38.	Love levels increase with the seriousness of relationships. More serious relationships have closer love levels; however, there seems to be a decrease in love levels in couples with children.
	Cassepp-Borges, V. (2020). Should I Stay or Should I Go? Relationship Satisfaction, Love, Love Styles and Religion Compatibility Predicting the Fate of Relationships. Sexuality & Culture. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-020-09798-2	The group with couples who got married, moved in together, or got engaged showed higher levels of love and in each of its three dimensions.
	Madey, S. F., & Rodgers, L. (2009). The effect of attachment and sternberg's triangular theory of love on relationship satisfaction. Individual Differences Research, 7(2), 76-84.	No associations were found between marital status and levels of love.
Length of relationship	Lemieux, R., & Hale, J. L. (2002). Cross-Sectional Analysis of Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment: Testing the Assumptions of the Triangular Theory of Love. Psychological Reports, 90(3), 1009-1014. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.90.3.1009-1014	The correlations between Length of the Relationship and Intimacy and Passion were significant and negative. The correlation between Length of Relationship and Commitment was significant and positive.
	Acker, M., & Davis, M. (1992). Intimacy, Passion and Commitment in Adult Romantic Relationships: A Test of the Triangular Theory of Love. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 9, 21-50. doi: 10.1177/0265407592091002	Those in longer relationships reported less intimacy and passion.
	Gao, G. (2001). Intimacy, passion, and commitment in Chinese and US American romantic relationships. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 329.342. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(01)00007-4	Length of the relationship did not significantly influence the dimensions of love.
	Panayiotou, G. (2005). Love, commitment, and response to conflict among Cypriot dating couples: Two models, one relationship. International Journal of Psychology, 40(2), 108-117. DOI: 10.1080/00207590444000230	Relationship duration was not significantly related to Sternberg model.
	Madey, S. F., & Rodgers, L. (2009). The effect of attachment and sternberg's triangular theory of love on relationship satisfaction. Individual Differences Research, 7(2), 76-84.	Length of relationship did correlate with greater commitment. The longer in a relationship; the greater the commitment.
	Martinez, G. S., Fernandez, M. C. (1993). The Sternberg Theory of Love - An Empirical-Analysis. Psicothema, 5, 151-167.	Over time, expressions of intimacy and passion diminish. Levels of commitment remain constant.
Attachment	Levy, M. B., & Davis, K. E. (1988). Lovestyles and attachment styles compared: Their relations to each other and to various relationship characteristics. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5, 439-471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407588054004	The secure style was positively associated with intimacy, commitment and passion; Avoidant and anxious/ambivalent styles was negatively associated with all 3 components.
	Copková, R., & Lorincová, E. (2021). The Dark Triad, Love Components, and Attachment Styles in Romantic Relationship Experiencing During Young Adulthood. Interpersona, 15(2), 212-232. https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.4687	Avoidant attachment style had significant negative and strong relations with all three components of love. The anxious attachment style also had significant negative relationships with the components of love.
	Madey, S. F., & Rodgers, L. (2009). The effect of attachment and sternberg's triangular theory of love on relationship satisfaction. Individual Differences Research, 7(2), 76-84.	Greater insecurity was associated with less intimacy, passion, and commitment.
		A more secure attachment predicts intimacy and commitment.
Infidelity	Turliuc, N. M., & Scutaru, E. L. (2013). A Semi-model of Predictive Factors for Mixed Infidelity. Annals of Al. I. Cuza University, Psychological Series, 22(2), 35-51.	Infidelity is negatively and significantly correlated with intimacy, passion and commitment.
	Leeker, O., & Carlozzi, A. (2014). Effects of sex, sexual orientation, infidelity expectations, and love on distress related to emotional and sexual infidelity. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 40(1), 68-91. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-0606.2012.00331.x	Less intimacy was also predictive of greater distress by sexual infidelity.
		A heterosexual orientation was associated with more jealousy in response to sexual infidelity.
	Scheeren, P., & Wagner, A. (2019). Predicting marital infidelity. Psicologia Clínica, 31(2), 387-406. https://doi.org/10.33208/PC1980-5438V0031N02A09	In women, high levels of passion predicted less infidelity.
Sexual Satisfaction	Turliuc, N. M., & Scutaru, E. L. (2013). A Semi-model of Predictive Factors for Mixed Infidelity. Annals of Al. I. Cuza University, Psychological Series, 22(2), 35-51.	Intimacy and passion levels can influence sexual satisfaction in the couple’s relationship.
Sexual Satisfaction	Kalka, D. (2018). Depressive symptoms, sexual satisfaction and satisfaction with a relationship in individuals with type 2 diabetes and sexual dysfunctions. Psychiatriatria polska, 52(6), 1087-1099. https://doi.org/10.12740/PP/OnlineFirst/85192	Commitment correlates positively with sexual satisfaction.
Sexual orientation	Cassepp-Borgess, V., & Teodoro, M. L. M. (2009). Versión Reducida de la Escala Triangular del Amor: Características del Sentimiento em Brasil. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 43(1), 30-38.	Regarding levels of love, no statistically significant differences were found between homosexuals/bissexuals and heterosexuals. However, the sample of homosexuals/bissexuals was very small and the authors suggest further studies with this variable.
Sexual orientation	Garcia, F. E., Escobar, C. G., Hein, H., Hernández, A., Torres, P., Valdebenito, R., & Vera, C. (2017). Couple Relationships Homosexual And Heterosexual: A Comparative Study. Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 31-43. https://doi.org/10.15517/ap.v31i122.23346	Absence of differences between groups in the components of love.
Dyadic adjustment	Garcia, F. E., Escobar, C. G., Hein, H., Hernández, A., Torres, P., Valdebenito, R., & Vera, C. (2017). Couple Relationships Homosexual And Heterosexual: A Comparative Study. Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 31-43. https://doi.org/10.15517/ap.v31i122.23346	Positive correlations between dyadic adjustment and the dimensions of love (intimacy, passion and commitment).
Dyadic adjustment		Intimacy was a significant predictor of dyadic adjustment.
Communication	Habibi, M., Vakili, Y., Fadaei, Z., Ansarinejad, F., Pooravari, M., & Salehi, S. (2018). Journal of Research & Health, 8(4), 346-355. DOI: 10.29252/jrh.8.4.346	Positive significant correlation between constructive communication styles with love components and there is a negative significant correlation between avoidance communication styles with love components.
Engagement in sexting	Ouytsel, J. V., Walrave, M., & Ponnet, K. (2019). Sexting within adolescents’ romantic relationships:how is t related to perceptions of love and verbal conflict? Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 216-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.029	Perceptions of passion and higher levels of perceived verbal aggression were significantly related with engagement in sexting.
Conflict resolution tactics	Garcia, F. E., Escobar, C. G., Hein, H., Hernández, A., Torres, P., Valdebenito, R., & Vera, C. (2017). Couple Relationships Homosexual And Heterosexual: A Comparative Study. Actualidades en Psicología, 31(122), 31-43. https://doi.org/10.15517/ap.v31i122.23346	In the homosexual sample, only intimacy had a positive correlation with the conflict resolution tactic negotiation.
Conflict resolution tactics		In the heterosexual sample, intimacy showed a positive correlation with negotiation and negative correlations with confrontation and withdrawal; commitment showed positive correlations with negotiation and confrontation; and passion showed only a positive correlation with negotiation.
Type of relationship – mediated/not mediated by internet	Haack, K. R., & Falcke, D. (2014). Love and Marital Quality in Romantic Relationships Mediated and Non-Mediated by Internet. Paidéia, 24(57), 105-113. doi:10.1590/1982-43272457201413	It was verified that the romantic relationships mediated by the Internet obtain lower scores for intimacy and decision/commitment when compared to the physical romantic relationships. No significant intergroup differences were found with regard to passion.
Reproductive success	Sorokowski, P; Sorokowska, A; Butovskaya, M; Karwowski, M; Groyecka, A; Wojciszke, B; Pawlowski, B. (2017). Love Influences Reproductive Success in Humans. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01922	Commitment was positively related to reproductive success for both the sexes. Passion and intimacy were positively and negatively associated with the number of children, respectively, but only for women.
Marriage criteria	Habibi, M., Vakili, Y., Fadaei, Z., Ansarinejad, F., Pooravari, M., & Salehi, S. (2018). Love styles, criteria of pre and post marriage and communication styles in couples. Journal of Research & Health, 8(4), 346-355. DOI: 10.29252/jrh.8.4.346	There is significant relationship in men between premarital criteria with intimacy component and passion and for women between the premarital criteria and commitment component. There is significant relationship in men between after-marriage criteria with intimacy component, with passion and with commitment.
Investment model	Panayiotou, G. (2005). Love, commitment, and response to conflict among Cypriot dating couples: Two models, one relationship. International Journal of Psychology, 40(2), 108-117. DOI: 10.1080/00207590444000230	Commitment (investment model) was positively and significantly correlated with commitment (triangular model), passion, and intimacy, which in turn were positively correlated with satisfaction and investment and negatively correlated with alternatives quality.
Emotional dependence	Lozano, M. V. C., Veja, J. L. R., Vasquez, M. M. G., Martinto, P. C. P., & Paredes, J. E. C. (2022). Tipos de amor y dependencia emocional en mujeres víctimas de violencia de pareja de una institución educativa de Chiclayo. Revista del Hospital Psiquiátrico de La Habana, 19(2).	Intimacy is correlated with elements of emotional dependence.
Subjective experiences of love	Marston, P. J., Hecht, M. L., Manke, M. L., McDaniel, S., & Reeder, H. (1998). The subjective experience of intimacy, passion, and commitment in heterossexual loving relationships. Personal Relationships, 5, 15-30.	The ways of experiencing intimacy were best explained by 6 factors: Openness, sex, affection, supportiveness, togetherness, and quiet company.
		The ways of experiencing passion were best explained by 2 factors: Romance and sexual intimacy.
		The ways of experiencing commitment were best explained by 5 factors: Supportiveness, expressions of love, fidelity, expressions of commitment, and consideration and devotion.
Pregnancy trimesters	Fernández-Carrasco, F. J., González-Mey, U., Rodríguez-Díaz, L., Vázquez-Lara, J. M., Gómez-Salgado, J., Parrón-Carreño, T. (2019). Significance of Affection Changes during Pregnancy: Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(2254). doi:10.3390/ijerph16132254	Intimacy decreased slightly during the first trimester. Then, slowly recovered during the second and third trimesters, reaching similar levels to those found at the beginning in both sexes.
		Passion clearly decreased during the first trimester of pregnancy in both men and women. However, as pregnancy progressed, passion was gradually recovered.
		Regarding the commitment domain, women always obtain higher scores than men, but the latter increase their scores from the beginning until the third trimester, while women show a slight decrease of these scores in the second trimester.

Note. This table summarizes the findings from the studies included in the scoping review, presenting the associations reported between the components of love and the various conjugal indicators assessed.

Among studies examining relationship satisfaction (10/12), all three love components were generally positively associated with satisfaction (Acker & Davis, 1992; Cassepp-Borges, 2020; Cassepp-Borges & Teodoro, 2009; Engel et al., 2002; Fadaki & Amani, 2015; Haack & Falcke, 2014; Lemieux & Hale, 2000; Levy & Davis, 1988; Panayiotou, 2005; Rizzon et al., 2013). Gender differences were reported by Lemieux and Hale (2000), who found that for men, commitment was the strongest predictor of satisfaction, followed by passion and intimacy, whereas for women, intimacy was the strongest predictor, followed by passion and commitment. Madey and Rodgers (2009) observed that intimacy and commitment positively mediated the association between secure attachment and relationship satisfaction. In contrast, Mônego and Teodoro (2011) reported significant correlations only for intimacy and passion, with no significant association for commitment. Fadaki and Amani (2015) noted that among participants who reported viewing pornography, correlations between love components and satisfaction were negative.

Studies examining relationship status (6/7) indicated that less committed or less serious relationships were generally associated with lower levels of love (Cassepp-Borges, 2020; Cassepp-Borges & Teodoro, 2009; Gao, 2001; Lemieux & Hale, 2002; Mônego & Teodoro, 2011; Panayiotou, 2005). Cassepp-Borges and Teodoro (2009) additionally found that couples with children had lower levels of love compared with couples in serious relationships without children, whereas Madey and Rodgers (2009) reported no significant association.

Among six studies examining relationship length, two found no significant correlations (Gao, 2001; Panayiotou, 2005). In the remaining four studies, length was generally negatively correlated with intimacy and passion, and positively correlated with commitment (Acker & Davis, 1992; Lemieux & Hale, 2002; Madey & Rodgers, 2009; Martinez & Fernandez, 1993).

All three studies investigating attachment reported that avoidant and anxious/ambivalent attachment styles were negatively associated with all love components (Copková & Lorincová, 2021; Levy & Davis, 1988; Madey & Rodgers, 2009). Secure attachment was positively associated with intimacy and commitment (Madey & Rodgers, 2009) and with all three components (Levy & Davis, 1988).

Regarding infidelity, it was generally negatively correlated with intimacy, passion, and commitment (Turliuc & Scutaru, 2013). Engel et al. (2002) found that higher passion predicted lower infidelity among women, whereas Leeker & Carlozzi (2014) observed that lower intimacy predicted greater distress due to sexual infidelity.

Sexual satisfaction was positively correlated with intimacy, passion (Turliuc & Scutaru, 2013), and commitment (Kalka, 2018). Studies examining sexual orientation (2/2) found no significant differences in love levels between sexual orientation groups (Cassepp-Borges & Teodoro, 2009; Garcia et al., 2017).

Additional conjugal variables were also examined, albeit each in only one study. Dyadic adjustment was positively associated with all love components, with intimacy serving as a significant predictor (Garcia et al., 2017). Constructive communication was positively associated with love components, whereas avoidance communication showed negative associations (Habibi et al., 2018). Passion was the only component significantly associated with engagement in sexting (Van Ouytsel et al., 2019). Regarding conflict resolution tactics, in heterosexual relationships, intimacy was positively correlated with negotiation and negatively correlated with confrontation and withdrawal, commitment correlated positively with negotiation and confrontation, and passion correlated positively only with negotiation. In homosexual relationships, intimacy was positively associated solely with negotiation (Garcia et al., 2017).

Romantic relationships mediated by the internet were associated with lower intimacy and commitment compared with in-person relationships (Haack & Falcke, 2014). Commitment was positively associated with reproductive success for both sexes, while for women, passion was positively associated and intimacy negatively associated with the number of children (Sorokowski et al., 2017). Love was also related to marriage criteria (criteria of choosing spouse in pre and post marriage), with premarital criteria for men associated with intimacy and passion, postmarital criteria associated with all components, and premarital criteria for women associated only with commitment (Habibi et al., 2018). Intimacy was positively correlated with emotional dependence (Lozano et al., 2022), and the commitment dimension of the investment model was positively associated with all love components, which in turn were positively correlated with relationship satisfaction (Panayiotou, 2005).

Finally, studies investigating subjective experiences of love indicated that intimacy was associated with openness, affection, supportiveness, togetherness, and quiet company; passion was associated with romance and sexual intimacy; and commitment was associated with supportiveness, fidelity, expressions of love and commitment (Marston et al., 1998). Changes across pregnancy trimesters showed that intimacy and passion slightly decreased during the first trimester and gradually recovered thereafter, while women consistently scored higher in commitment. Men’s commitment increased from the first to the third trimester, whereas women’s commitment slightly decreased during the second trimester (Fernández-Carrasco et al., 2019).

Discussion

The present scoping review aimed to examine how Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love has been applied in the study of couple relationships. Specifically, it addressed four objectives: to map and describe the characteristics of studies that have used Sternberg’s Triangular Love Theory to examine dimensions or indicators of couple relationships; to explore how the construct of love has been operationalized and assessed; to identify which dimensions of couple functioning and additional variables have been examined; and to investigate how the components of love, as defined by Sternberg’s triangular model, are associated with different aspects of couple relationships. Using a scoping review methodology (Tricco et al., 2018) and following PRISMA guidelines, research trends, empirical gaps, and directions for future work were identified.

Regarding the first objective, several patterns were evident. Most studies were conducted in the United States and European countries, highlighting the need for broader geographic and cultural representation, as cultural norms, modernization, and social values can influence the experience and expression of love (Sorokowski et al., 2023). Similarly, we consider it particularly surprising that Brazil showed a level of representation comparable to that of the United States and European countries. It is possible that this finding emerged as a result of the representativeness of the databases used, although we cannot disregard that scientific research output in Brazil has increased considerably in recent years, according to the UNESCO Science Report (2021).

The majority of studies were published within the past two decades, demonstrating the sustained relevance of Sternberg’s model in contemporary research on romantic relationships (Vásquez et al., 2025). Nevertheless, all included studies employed cross-sectional designs, which limit the capacity to examine how love evolves over time. Longitudinal and dyadic designs are therefore essential to capture within-couple dynamics and changes in intimacy, passion, and commitment (Espindola & Neto, 2025). Only a small number of studies included actual couples, emphasizing the importance of investigating both partners’ perspectives, particularly because partner similarity has been shown to influence relationship outcomes (Delatorre & Wagner, 2021).

Nearly all studies focused on heterosexual relationships, and few explicitly reported participants’ sexual orientation. As noted by Totenhagen et al. (2023), assuming heterosexuality without disclosure contributes to the underrepresentation of sexual minorities in relationship science. Comparative research across sexual orientations is therefore needed to assess whether Sternberg’s dimensions of love generalize beyond heterosexual samples (Cassepp-Borges & Teodoro, 2009; Garcia et al., 2017).

Addressing the second objective, most studies employed the Triangular Love Scale (Sternberg, 1997), supporting both the theoretical and empirical applicability of the model. This finding aligns with prior evidence demonstrating the scale’s validity across populations and cultures (Bauermeister et al., 2011; Hernandez & Baylão, 2020; Sorokowska et al., 2023; Sorokowski et al., 2023; Sternberg, 1997), indicating a consistent operationalization of the love construct that facilitates comparison across studies.

Regarding the third objective, relationship satisfaction was the most frequently examined relational variable, followed by relationship status and relationship length. These findings are consistent with previous literature highlighting strong associations between love and relationship satisfaction (Rokach, 2024) as well as multiple relational dimensions (Cebral-Loureda et al., 2024). Other relational dimensions, including communication, sexual satisfaction, and conflict management, were examined less frequently, revealing promising avenues for future research, particularly in exploring potential mediating or moderating roles. A subset of studies also assessed sociodemographic and individual variables—such as personality, psychological well-being, depression, religiosity, and pornography use—underscoring the importance of understanding how these factors may influence or moderate couple dynamics.

In relation to the fourth objective, results consistently indicated positive associations between intimacy, passion, and commitment and relationship satisfaction (Acker & Davis, 1992; Cassepp-Borges, 2020; Cassepp-Borges & Teodoro, 2009; Engel et al., 2002; Fadaki & Amani, 2015; Haack & Falcke, 2014; Lemieux & Hale, 2000; Levy & Davis, 1988; Panayiotou, 2005; Rizzon et al., 2013). Less serious or less committed relationships were generally associated with lower levels of love (Cassepp-Borges, 2020; Cassepp-Borges & Teodoro, 2009; Gao, 2001; Lemieux & Hale, 2002; Mônego & Teodoro, 2011; Panayiotou, 2005), although Madey and Rodgers (2009) reported no significant association, potentially due to smaller sample sizes. Relationship length was negatively associated with intimacy and passion and positively associated with commitment in most studies (Acker & Davis, 1992; Lemieux & Hale, 2002; Madey & Rodgers, 2009; Martinez & Fernandez, 1993), with some deviations from Sternberg’s (1986) predictions. Sorokowski et al. (2021) suggest a curvilinear trend, with intimacy peaking in mid-length relationships and declining in longer-term unions, highlighting the need for more nuanced longitudinal analyses (Graham, 2011).

Attachment was positively associated with secure attachment styles (Levy & Davis, 1988; Madey & Rodgers, 2009) and negatively associated with anxious or ambivalent styles (Copková & Lorincová, 2021; Levy & Davis, 1988; Madey & Rodgers, 2009), reinforcing the role of emotional security in fostering stable bonds. Infidelity was generally negatively associated with love (Leeker & Carlozzi, 2014; Turliuc & Scutaru, 2013), although one study reported gender-specific effects (Scheeren & Wagner, 2019). Love was also positively associated with sexual satisfaction (Kalka, 2018; Turliuc & Scutaru, 2013), consistent with prior research (Esfahani et al., 2022; Martínez & Rodas, 2011), although some studies linked sexual satisfaction primarily to passion (Fricker & Moore, 2002), indicating the need for further investigation.

Studies examining sexual orientation reported no significant differences in love levels, but small samples of sexual minorities limited the reliability of these findings (Cassepp-Borges & Teodoro, 2009; Garcia et al., 2017; Totenhagen et al., 2023). A subset of studies also examined additional relational and contextual variables—including dyadic adjustment, communication, engagement in sexting, conflict resolution tactics, relationship type (mediated vs. in-person), reproductive success, marriage criteria, investment model, emotional dependence, subjective experiences of love, and pregnancy trimesters. Although these studies were limited in number, they illustrate the versatility of Sternberg’s model and highlight multiple domains for future empirical testing.

It is important to acknowledge some limitations of this scoping review. First, although the search strategy was designed to be as comprehensive as possible, additional studies may have been identified if other relevant databases, such as PsycInfo, had been accessible at the time of the search. Second, the inclusion and exclusion criteria may have limited the scope of the evidence mapped, particularly because the review focused specifically on empirical studies examining associations between Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love and other relational variables. While this focus was aligned with the objectives of the review, it may have excluded studies addressing the theory from broader conceptual, theoretical, or methodological perspectives. Despite these limitations, the findings underscore that Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love remains a valuable framework for understanding romantic relationships. At the same time, the empirical gaps identified—particularly the scarcity of longitudinal studies, the limited inclusion of couples and sexual minorities, and the uneven exploration of relational and individual variables—highlight important directions for future research aimed at advancing the field.

Conclusion

This scoping review offers an updated and comprehensive overview of how Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love has been applied in the study of couple relationships, identifying how love has been operationalized, which relational and contextual variables have been examined alongside it, and how the components of love are associated with different aspects of couple functioning. The findings indicate that Sternberg’s model remains widely used and empirically relevant, with a substantial proportion of studies published in the last decade.

Across the variables explored, relationship satisfaction emerged as the most frequently assessed and consistently associated with the components of love, with multiple studies supporting robust positive associations. Other relational indicators—such as relationship length, relationship status, communication processes, sexual satisfaction, or sexual orientation—have also been examined, though evidence in these domains is more limited and sometimes inconsistent. Further research is therefore needed to clarify how these dimensions, as well as additional contextual or individual factors, may influence the expression and dynamics of love within romantic relationships.

Methodologically, all included studies relied on cross-sectional designs, and most were conducted outside European contexts. These patterns underscore the need to expand the evidence base through longitudinal and dyadic designs that can capture developmental changes and within-couple processes over time. They also highlight the importance of diversifying samples geographically and culturally, given that cultural norms, social expectations, and modernization levels may shape both the experience and the meaning of love.

Finally, acknowledging that love is a construct that both influences and is influenced by multiple relational and contextual factors—and that it remains, to some extent, an elusive phenomenon (Sternberg, 1997)—this review reinforces the need for sustained empirical inquiry. Future research should integrate Sternberg’s framework with broader relational, sociodemographic, and psychological dimensions, in order to deepen conceptual understanding and improve the comparability of findings across cultural and methodological contexts.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental Material - Understanding Love in Couple Relationships: A Scoping Review of Sternberg’s Triangular Theory

Supplemental Material for Understanding Love in Couple Relationships: A Scoping Review of Sternberg’s Triangular Theory in Chinan by Ana Durão and Ana Conde in Psychological Reports

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Ana Durão

Ana Conde

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This article was supported by National Funds through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., within RISE-Health, R&D Unit (reference UID/06397/2023).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data supporting this scoping review derive from previously published studies, which are cited throughout the manuscript.*

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

The authors declare that the English language of this manuscript was revised and refined with the assistance of the AI tool ChatGPT, as the authors are not native English speakers. This support was used exclusively to enhance linguistic clarity and readability, without any involvement in the interpretation of data or modification of the scientific content.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author Biographies

Ana Durão is a PhD candidate in the Department of Education and Psychology at the Portucalense University, Portugal. She is interested in understanding human beings, their emotions and behaviors, not only at the individual level, but also within the context of intimate relationships and couple dynamics. Her research primarily focuses on processes of couple interaction and relationship satisfaction, seeking to examine the impact of love on intimate relationships, as well as to understand the effects of associated relational variables across diverse sexual orientation and relationship configurations.

Ana Conde, PhD, is a clinical psychologist and an integrated researcher at RISE-Health, Hospital da Luz Vila Real, Portugal. She is a specialist member in Clinical and Health Psychology of the Portuguese Order of Psychologists. Her research has focused on clinical and developmental psychology, with particular emphasis on perinatal mental health, parent–infant relationships, psychological adjustment to stressful life events, and interpersonal and family relationships. She has extensive experience in higher education, research supervision, and participation in national and international research networks. Her work integrates clinical, developmental, and relational perspectives to better understand psychological functioning in close relationships.

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