The word and the witness: The creation of a sacred universe in John’s Apocalypse

Translating tēn marturian Iēsou

Much scholarly debate has concerned how to best translate tēn marturian Iēsou (Christou) in 1:2, 1:9, and 20:4. Some scholars have chosen “the witness (or ‘testimony’) to Jesus (Christ),” while others have elected to render this phrase “the witness (or ‘testimony’) of Jesus (Christ).” Clearly, the pistis Christou (faith of Christ/faith in Christ) debate in Pauline studies has influenced this discussion more than the book of Revelation itself. The phrase should be translated “witness of Jesus (Christ)” with the understanding that Jesus’s fidelity to God must be matched by the witness of Asian Christians. In other words, the solution is not either/or but both/and. For John’s Apocalypse, in the first instance, the word of God must be reflected fully in the witness of Jesus; that is, the phrase in the first instance is not about Christ Jesus as much as Jesus’s faithfulness to God. In turn, the witness of Jesus must be matched by the witness of Asian Christians (e.g., “for the witness which they maintained” [6:9]; “the word of their testimony” [12:11]; “the ones who keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus” [14:12]). In this way, Revelation forms a sacred community.

The consistent use of genitive constructions is part and parcel of each statement, and these parallels are John’s expressions. John sees something of a sequential expression of faith in which what occurs first between the two divine beings in heaven must be repeated at the human level. Christ has conveyed to the earthly community what has been decreed in heaven. The earthly community must live consistently with the heavenly decree. Revelation 4 and 5 set the stage in heaven; Rev 12:11–12, 17 are examples of faithful responses in heaven; 6:9, on earth. Again, the use of prepositional phrases conveys their fidelity. Other passages support this analysis.

Three other passages use prepositional constructions to convey fidelity to the divine decree. In Rev 12:11, one finds a parallel expressing how Satan and his entourage have been defeated in heaven. Michael and his heavenly army have defeated Satan and his army “through the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their witness.” In this passage, “through the blood of the Lamb” parallels “through the word of their witness.” Jesus’s death and their testimony comprise two aspects of one reality. This message would have been meant to encourage Asian Christians to defeat the human agents of Satan in the same way. Moreover, again the use of prepositional constructs recurs.

Revelation 12:17 provides a second example. Here John parallels “the ones who keep the commandments of God and maintain the testimony of Jesus.” In this passage, John clearly sees God’s commandments as synonymous to Jesus’s witness. Also, the subject for the second half of the verse must be obtained from its antecedent: “the ones who keep . . .” Clearly the two phrases are connected and reflect one group. Again, prepositions describe the vision.

Our final example occurs in Rev 14:12: “Here is the steadfastness of the saints, the ones who keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus.” Here the second part of the verse has neither subject nor verb and must take both from the first parallel. The two phrases are inseparable and represent two aspects of one reality for John, just as the word of God and the witness of Jesus are two aspects of one reality.

In each of the three instances, the first phrase says something about God/Christ and the second, what it means to remain faithful to God/Christ. In each instance, John employs prepositional phrases to convey the message. This feature is particularly clear in 14:12: the second phrase has neither a subject nor a verb but takes both from the first phrase. This pattern is the way John communicates. Thus, it is not “the witness to Jesus” but “the witness of Jesus,” which must be duplicated by the witness of the saints (see 6:9; 12:17; 14:12). This faithful discipleship of Asian Christians would eventually lead to their citizenship in the New Jerusalem.

In Rev 1:2, 1:9 and 20:4, “the witness of Jesus” is analogous to “the word of God.” This is intentional. Rev 1:2 and 1:9 establish the symmetry between God and Christ, a symmetry one finds throughout the book. The two are divine, and their actions are interchangeable. Richard Bauckham writes, “What Christ does, God does.” ² He continues, “God is related to the world not only as the transcendent holy One, but also as the slaughtered Lamb.” ³ Concurring with Bauckham, Michael Naylor writes that names/expressions/titles traditionally reserved for God Almighty alone are applied to Jesus in Revelation. He notes this practice occurring in 1:8, 21:6, and 22:13 (“the Alpha and the Omega”); 1:17, 2:8, and 22:13 (“the first and the last”); 21:6 and 22:13 (“the beginning and the end”). Revelation 17:14 and 19:11 are to be added to this list. ⁴ In Rev 1:2, 1:9, and 20:4, “the witness of Jesus” is the manifestation of “the word of God.” The Apocalypse employs these phrases to establish a sacred universe that included the faithful in both heaven and earth.

Finally, in 12:11, 12:17, and 14:12, those who have followed Jesus’s example are depicted in suffering and also in salvation. This motif is an early Christian one found throughout the NT (e.g., Matt 5:11–12; Acts 3:13–26; Phil 2:5–11; 1 Pet 5:5–11). Before examining Rev 1:2, 1:9, and 20:4 in more detail, I turn first to Rev 19:11–16, in which the relationship between God and Christ is spelled out with clarity.

Jesus, “The Word of God”

Revelation 19:11–16 constitutes a significant passage in the book. It refers to four names for Christ Jesus, the Rider on the white horse, and one of the names is “The Word of God.” These names convey three things: (1) God Almighty and Christ are inseparable; (2) Christ is the full manifestation of God Almighty; and (3) Christ serves as an eschatological judge in God’s stead. As such, Christ is the authoritative spokesperson for God Almighty; that is, Christ is one whose actions require emulation.

The first name for Christ Jesus is pistos kai alēthinos (“Faithful [or ‘Trustworthy’] and True”). ⁵ While this name echoes earlier passages in the vision (see 2:10, 13; 3:7, 14; see also 17:14; 19:9), it is its coherence with Rev 21:5 and 22:6 that is most noteworthy in this context. In Rev 21:5 and 22:6, God’s words are “trustworthy and true.” This connection has not been perceived by most commentaries or translations (e.g., NRSV, NIV, NAB, and GNB). Revelation 21:5 and 22:6 reiterate the connection established between God and Christ in chs 4–5 and more recently 19:11. Jesus is the manifestation in 19:11 of God’s declaration in 21:5 and 22:5. The phrase connoted that God shall indeed bring God’s declarations to completion.

This name also unites Christ and community in that five of the eight references to being faithful (pistos) in Revelation refer to the faithfulness of Christians even unto death (1:5; 2:10, 13; 3:14; 17:14). The remaining three instances assure the community of its reward if they remain faithful (19:11; 21:5; 22:6). Moreover, these last three passages also relate to the faithfulness of God/Christ that will save faithful Christians. In John’s Apocalypse, “true” (alēthinos) always refers to God/Christ (e.g., 3:7; 6:10; 15:3; 19:2, 9; 22:6). ⁶ This name conveyed to its readers that Christ is the divine representative of God Almighty in flesh and blood, in word and deed. It would have also connoted Christ’s veracity as said representative to act in God’s stead. Finally, it would have communicated that, if Asian Christians were faithful to God and Christ, God and Christ would be faithful and true to them and bring them into the New Jerusalem.

The second name is not revealed (19:12). The unrevealed name is a motif in the Apocalypse in which the insiders (the Christians) perceive the truth, while the outsiders (Roman officials) do not (see 14:3; 17:14). ⁷ In 2:17, the faithful conquerors receive a new name which no one but the holder of the name knows. In 3:12, the faithful conquerors shall receive “the name of my God and the name of the city of my God, the New Jerusalem.” Revelation 14:1 is another example of the 144,000’s having God’s name and Christ’s name on their foreheads. Again, throughout the book, John closely associates God and Christ (e.g., 5:13; 7:17; 11:15; 12:10; 14:1; 17:14; 19:16; 21:22), and the name for one is the name for the other. Moreover, the name for Jesus in 19:11, “Faithful and True,” resonates with God’s words which are “trustworthy and true” in 21:5 and 22:6. The targeted readership would have understood they possessed knowledge concealed to outsiders: “Christian” was a name of derision outside the Christian community, but, within it, the name conveyed election. Finally, just as Christ shares God Almighty’s name, so too will Asian Christians if they remain faithful, a fact hidden to outsiders but revealed to Christians. The unknown name is probably “Christ” or “Christian,” either referring to the Jewish messiah and savior of the entire world or referring to his followers or both in some way.

The third name is “The Word of God” (19:13). It connoted that Christ is the complete revelation of God Almighty and that those who are faithful to Christ’s testimony would enter into the New Jerusalem. This name conveyed to the original readers that their allegiance to Christ Jesus was simultaneously an allegiance to God Almighty. John builds upon several traditions (e.g., Hos 6:5; Pss 33:6; 147:15, 18; Jer 23:29; Sir 1:6–20; Wis 18:15–19; 1 Cor 1:18–25). Revelation has developed the imagery in light of the life, ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection of Christ Jesus. Jesus of Nazareth has put flesh on the bones of messianic expectations, and in light of Jesus the Christian community has re-configured its understanding of Who God is and what God requires. If Asian Christians can mirror Jesus’s fidelity to God, they shall be saved and enter the eschatological New Jerusalem (see 21:1–-8).

The final name is “King of kings and Lord of lords” (19:16). Again, one finds a name usually associated in the tradition solely with God Almighty (e.g., Deut 10:17; Dan 4:37 LXX; 1 Tim 6:15; 1 Enoch 9:4). This name probably contained a religio-political message that Christ, not Caesar, is the true ruler of the cosmos. Indeed, both Rev 17:14 and 19:16 recur within political contexts in which Roman hegemony finds its downfall at the hands of the messiah. ⁸ Brian Blount argues, persuasively in my opinion, that the entire book is concerned with who properly should have this name. The Christian proclamation of this name “has provoked the draconian behavior of a Babylon/Rome determined to secure this name for itself. The name, then, is also the testimony.” Blount continues that Jesus himself bore this witness that has led to the persecution of Asian Christians. “It is a political reality drawn from a cultic claim.” ⁹ The Sovereign One is Christ, not Caesar.

This examination of Rev 19:11–16 has shown that God Almighty and Christ Jesus both have divine status. They act in concert with one another. They may be distinguished, but they are inseparable. The names for Christ in Rev 19:11–16 communicated to the original recipients of the Apocalypse that the Rider on the white horse is the full manifestation of God Almighty and the only one worthy to act as eschatological judge and ultimately decide who shall enter the New Jerusalem (see 19:17–21; 20:7–15). ¹⁰ This article turns now to an examination of Rev 1:2, 1:9, and 20:4.

The word and the witness

1:2. “(W)ho testified to the word of God and the witness of Jesus as much as he saw.”

This passage is part of the book’s salutation. The purpose would have been to convey that John’s prophecy was accurate and complete. John follows with an admonition to readers to adhere to the content of the book. In essence, God Almighty has given the Apocalypse to Christ who gives it to an angel so the angel can give it to John. This is the unbroken chain of transmission, a chain of transmission unique among Jewish apocalypses of the Second Temple period. ¹¹ The messiah has no role in the transmission of the apocalypse in all other extant Jewish apocalypses from this period (e.g., 1 Enoch 1; 2 Baruch 1).

This statement affirms Christ’s divinity from the very start of the book. What Christ does “is no less truly and directly divine than what is said to be done by” God Almighty. ¹² G. K. Beale writes that the Lamb is equal to God Himself in the Apocalypse: “Because this vision serves as the introduction to the coming visions, it testifies to the joint authority of God and Christ throughout the book.” ¹³ In other words, Jesus’s testimony is identical to God’s declaration. The book initiates a sacred union between God Almighty and Christ. Eventually, this sacred union will involve others, including the Asian Christian community. Finally, by transmitting the book to John, the circle of faithful transmission has been expanded to include John. Revelation 1:9 confirms this expansion.

1:9. I was on the island called Patmos because of the word of God and the witness of Jesus.

This verse builds upon the association made in 1:2 between God’s assertion, Jesus’s testimony, and John’s faithful transmission of the divine vision. In 1:9, John identifies himself as a brother who shares with Asian Christians in their tribulation, kingdom, and steadfastness. First, it is noteworthy that John lists tribulation, kingdom, and steadfastness as Greco-Roman writers might list virtues. (Tribulation would not be considered a Greco-Roman virtue.) These terms were interchangeable for John, so their sequence is not important. What matters is that they are all part of the existential daily life for Asian Christians. As victory comes through suffering for Christ Jesus, the kingdom comes through steadfastness and tribulation; that is, both suffering and faithfulness are real, integral parts of Christian daily life. The duality of Christian existence is not an accident. It is the result of planned oppressive actions. God has planned a way around this evil, however, by overcoming through suffering as Christ has done.

After identifying himself, John says that he was on Patmos “because of the word of God and the witness of Jesus.” In other words, John’s faithful re-presentation of the divine message has led to his punishment. With these words, John enters into the sacred cosmos of the book of Revelation. His faithfulness to Christ, who has been faithful to God Almighty, has brought John to this point. Such allegiance would not of itself be seen by the Romans as seditious, but Christian religious practice that did not appear to have room for the Roman emperor would naturally lead to tensions with Roman authorities and/or their representations. ¹⁴ The theological roots of this book are too conservative to allow Caesar even to share the heavenly throne with Christ Jesus.

John not only asserts his religious devotion to God and Christ but also his comradeship with his fellow Christians. Thus, John establishes an unbroken and trustworthy continuum from God to Christ to himself to the Asian Christian community. Moreover, he declares that he suffers for the faith just as Asian Christians suffer. For this reason, he shares the stressful ordeal that Asian Christians experience. This passage relates that John has been a good steward of the vision, has faithfully passed it on to his fellow Christians in Asia, and suffers for it. This is true Christian leadership that does not put itself above its parishioners but in their midst. It also implies that those who are faithful as Christ and John will also enter into the sacred universe. They will also suffer, but religious fidelity and human affliction are part and parcel of their lives.

20:4. And I saw thrones and they sat upon them and judgment was given to them and the souls of the ones who had been beheaded because of the witness of Jesus and the word of God.

Between this last passage in the series and the previous parallel in 1:9 are four similar passages in 6:9; 12:11, 17; 14:12. Notably, these four passages have in common that they all speak to how one might be faithful to the word of God and the witness of Christ Jesus. While Rev 1:2, 9 and 20:4 draw attention to God Almighty and Christ Jesus, the latter four verses draw attention to the faithful response of devoted Christians, the citizens of the New Jerusalem.

Revelation 20:4 is part of the first resurrection. It presents those who have been beheaded because of their fidelity to God and Christ. Chris Rowland is one of many who argue that this verse refers to two groups, not one. He argues that whether the martyrs have died for the faith “is of secondary importance.” ¹⁵ What is important, according to Rowland, is that there are two groups: “those who resisted the beast and those who suffered for it.” This entire section of Rowland’s commentary is fraught with verbs in the subjunctive mood. More importantly, a distinction between those who resisted the beast and those who suffered for it fails the test of cogency. Are readers to believe that those who suffered martyrdom did not first resist worshiping the beast? Are readers to believe that those who resisted the beast have demonstrably less faith than those who died for the faith? Is there an exegetical method by means of which one can make such determinations? I think not. Moreover, it is something of a stretch to believe that either Asian Christians or Roman officials would see the distinction Rowland sees or that such a distinction would have mattered to anyone personally involved. Those who have been faithful but have not died know that it could happen to them at any time. ¹⁶ Finally, it is rather doubtful that dying for one’s faith would be a secondary matter for either the martyr or the one condemning the martyr to death. Indeed, for Rowland to be correct on this point would mean one must ignore the stated reason for their deaths: “because of the witness of Jesus and the word of God.”

Robert Wall presents a more nuanced form of the “two groups” argument. He argues that the martyrs represent one group; the faithful, but not martyred, followers compose a second group. Both groups “have met the conditions of Christian discipleship.” ¹⁷ This argument is an improved one. Yet, a problem exists. Not worshiping the beast (or its image) and not receiving its mark on their foreheads represents not two forms of idolatry but one. The worship of the beast/its image is a cultic act; the mark on the forehead is a public display that symbolizes cultic practices. And yet another problem is that martyrdom is far more significant socially and personally than the idolatrous practices. Once people die, they cannot recant their beliefs. For these reasons, therefore, the deaths and subsequent resurrection of the martyrs is the most significant element in this verse, for it speaks directly to those under religio-political repression and gives them hope.

Revelation 20:4 fulfills the promises in 2:27 (“and he will rule them with an iron rod”) and 3:21 (“and I will allow the one who conquers to sit with me on my throne just as I also conquered and sat with my father on his throne”). If this is an interpolation, as some suggest, it is an interpolation that fits with the overall agenda of the Apocalypse. ¹⁸

Clearly, the death of these respective souls is owing to their relationship with the witness of Jesus and the word of God (14:14; 19:10). The death of these souls being directly tied to the word of God would remind readers of John’s own suffering because of the prophetic activity of God (1:9) and would reinforce the tie to Jesus, recently called the Word of God. ¹⁹

This is absolutely correct. There are no coincidences in John’s Apocalypse. The question is not whether a pattern exists, but how to discern the pattern and the layers within it. Finally, the fulfillment of the promise in 3:21 speaks to inclusion in the New Jerusalem.

God and Christ have restored them to life and they reign with Christ for a thousand years. Their faith has cost them their lives, but it also has restored their souls. Judgment has been given to them, probably pointing back to Rev 6:9–11. They have not allowed Caesar to share divine honors with God Almighty and Christ. They know the One Who is the real King of kings and Lord of lords, and they will not allow someone unworthy to share the divine space (see 17:14; 19:16). Thus, Rev 20:4 re-affirms the divine name in 19:16. ²⁰ These passages conveyed to Asian Christians under extreme social pressure that Christ would reward them for their religious commitment and devotion. The honor the martyrs have received is akin to God’s election of the Hebrews to be God’s people over the Egyptians, later the Babylonians, and finally the Romans, for John’s Apocalypse is about one’s commitment to God whether or not it is socially advantageous.

Revelation 20:4 represents the beginning of the end of the reign of Satan and the vindication of the saints. In Rev 12:7–12, Satan and his followers have been dispelled from heaven. In 19:17–21, the beast and the false prophet are cast into the lake of fire. In 20:1–3, Satan is thrown into the abyss. This pattern is systematic: casting down evil first from heaven to earth, from earth to the lake of fire, and from earth to the great abyss. At none of these points in the narrative is a vision of the redemption of the saints. Here Rev 20:4–6 differs by including a vision of the vindication of the saints. This is the beginning of joy for the saints. Revelation 20:4 tells the Christian community in Asia that they will definitely enter the New Jerusalem, the sacred cosmos God and Christ have prepared for those who have been faithful “even unto death” (12:11). John uses this passage as a means of exhorting his Asian parishioners to stay the course in the midst of their continuing regional repression. ²¹

There is, however, one last battle in Rev 20:7–10. Satan is released from his prison, and he again finds followers. These new followers of Satan are so many that they are “like the sand of the sea” (20:8). ²² Again, Satan is defeated, along with his followers, but this time he is thrown into the lake of fire and suffers eternally with the beast and the false prophet. They shall not enter the sacred cosmos. It is the end of evil, both moral and natural (see 21:3–8). I turn now to a summation and conclusion below.

Summation and conclusion

This study has argued that the phrases “the word of God” and “the witness of Jesus” are parallel phrases that conveyed to John’s original audience that God Almighty’s declaration and Christ Jesus’s testimony to that declaration are identical. Christ Jesus has faithfully re-presented and represented the divine plan in his very ministry and person. The original recipients of the Apocalypse must perceive that their complete commitment to Christ will ultimately save them and help them to avoid eternal separation from God Almighty and Christ, the second death from which there is no redemption.

These three passages attest to the unity of God and Christ, the need for a faithful testimony to God and Christ, and inclusion into the sacred cosmos, using prepositional constructions as a means to convey these things. Revelation 12:11 relates how Michael and his heavenly army have conquered Satan and his entourage and cast them out of heaven, “because of the blood of the Lamb and because of the word of their testimony.” Their faithfulness to Jesus has won the victory in heaven. In Rev 12:17, Satan chases the earthly followers of Christ, “the ones who keep the commandments of God and maintain the witness of Jesus.” In other words, the earthly followers of Jesus have retained their faith and pose a threat to Satan. Moreover, according to Rev 14:12, the saints are “the ones who keep the commandments of God and their faith in Jesus.” Keeping the faith is the sole trait needed for sainthood because doing so under duress would be a substantial accomplishment. All three passages emphasize the need for faithfulness to enter into the New Jerusalem, consistently employing prepositional phrases to do so.

The names for the Messiah in Rev 19:11–16 conveyed Christ’s complete unity with God Almighty and Christ’s authority to act as eschatological judge and also eschatological Lord of the New Jerusalem. These names formerly had been associated solely with God Almighty. The bestowing of divine honors to the Messiah is a distinctly Christian development and so too the other roles ascribed to the Messiah. The point of these names would be to exhort Asian Christians under social duress to remain faithful and ultimately to avoid the second death and enter the eschatological sacred universe.

Finally, the connection between Christ’s witness and God’s declaration plays a role in creating the sacred universe of John’s Apocalypse. First, the book gives Christ and God Almighty the same divine status (1:2). The fellowship between God and Christ expands with the inclusion of John the Seer without giving John divine status (1:9). Passages throughout the Apocalypse envision a sacred cosmos that includes the faithful in heaven and on Earth, beings who have suffered for their complete devotion to Christ Jesus (e.g., 6:9–11; 12:11, 17; 14:12–13). Suffering and faithfulness are the two constants of human existence for Asian Christians. Revelation 20:4 is the beginning of the vindication of the Asian Christian community: it gives hope to those who continue to suffer for their faith and assures them of the ultimate salvation of themselves and also those who have given their lives for the faith. Evil does indeed have a long shelf-life (e.g., 20:7–10), but faithful Christian witnessing leads to a more rewarding end (ch 21).