Abstract
Casual inspection of the contents of this superb new book could be quite misleading. While chapter titles seem to suggest a traditional presentation, this volume is anything but conventional. This derives in part from the rare historical range of its author. Professor of medieval history at the Royal Holloway University, Andrew Jotischky is equally at home in Greek and Latin Christianity, and he brings his expertise effectively to bear here. Beyond this, J. displays sovereign command of both the primary sources and, especially, of the rapidly evolving realm of monastic historiography.
J.’s primary intent is to address how monasticism changed over more than a millennium of monastic history. He explores the motivations for founding a monastery and discusses at length ways in which monasteries—putatively founded on the ideal of withdrawal—served as economic, social, intellectual, and religious centers, not to mention loci for education, agriculture, governance, and more. J. also attempts the difficult task of describing what, precisely, went on inside a monastery: the religious practices, theological ideas, and social roles—the “lived experience”—of monks and nuns, in both Latin and Greek realms. Juxtaposing Eastern and Western institutions not only brings out contrasts; it also underscores the astonishing diversity of monastic experience and the dynamic change not always associated with the earliest medieval centuries.
This is hardly to imply that J. ignores traditional historiographical frameworks. In his first chapter, J. explores the origins of monasticism in Egypt and its subsequent spread to Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, and, then, to Western Europe. From here, J. examines the development of Western monasticism, beginning with Benedict’s immensely influential vision for a mode of monasticism that synthesized traditions of living in common, a structured round of prayer and work, and strict obedience to an abbot. J. then takes us from central Italy to the Frankish lands, England, and Ireland, emphasizing the special contributions in learning and missionary activity of Irish monks, and then to the standardization of monastic practices under Charlemagne and his imperial successors. A bravura third chapter fully examines parallel developments in Eastern and Western traditions in an era marked by exogenous threats and internal renewal, of which the Studite reform in Constantinople was exemplary. It is in this period, too, that Mount Athos became a major center and source of energy for Orthodox monasticism. Here also J. discusses the re-emergence, particularly in the East, of eremitical movements. Following a discussion of the impact of political instability in the East and Viking raids in the West, J. turns to the Cluniac reform’s emphasis on extensive liturgical prayer and independence from secular interference. A fourth chapter, focused thematically on reform, considers Byzantine coenobitical movements, as well as the simplicity, austerity, and self-sufficiency intended by the first Cistercians. J. also helpfully discusses the Augustinian canons—sometimes short-shrifted—who took on the pastoral duties of a priest within the traditional liturgical and communal structures of the monk. An enlightening fifth chapter treats in extenso themes not always given their due: the essentially transactional relationship between monasteries and their patrons, in which physical protection, legacies, and land were given in exchange for services, prayers, and private masses; the economic roles of monks as landlords of vast estates, not to mention military leaders; the guidance, charity, and education monks gave to the misfortunate of local communities; and the roles of bishops, not always welcome, in internal monastic affairs. J. discusses instances of rebellion and even violence within monastic communities. Finally, J. treats the association of monks with several religious movements, not least of all in pilgrimage, including those military pilgrimages, the Crusades. A final chapter treats learning and scholarship in the late Middle Ages and, in the East, the rise of Hesychasm. A fascinating epilogue reflects on the lasting impact of monastic communities and ideals.
This summary can hardly hope to capture what makes this work’s treatment of its subject so superior. J. returns again and again to an insight he establishes at the outset, namely, that monastic sources are usually literary texts and that, as such, they are rhetorical in purpose. This fundamental insight allows J. consistently to distinguish pious fiction from fact and (relying here, as he acknowledges, on the groundbreaking work of Constance Berman) to revise several standard narratives, not least that having to do with the foundation and expansion of the first Cistercian monasteries. Beyond this, J. excels at putting the development of monasticism in political and economic context and in demonstrating how profoundly cloisters could be shaped by their multiple environments. Moreover, in addition to emphasizing the Latin/Greek distinction in governance and practice, J. also underlines the degree of commonality in matters of communal discipline and of renewal and reform.
Most gratifyingly, J. brings monasteries and monks to life; he presents us with a real, credible, and compelling picture of life inside the cloisters. This included friction and conflict, inevitable in a community in which individuals could not choose their fellow monks or nuns. J. argues, perhaps provocatively to some, that monks and nuns behaved no better or worse than members of society outside the cloister walls. To be sure, expectations of moral and spiritual excellence were higher intramurally; but, in practice, it remains far from clear that monks in general were obviously holier or more virtuous than the laity extramurally. J. talks convincingly of the “mental health” of monks and finds, not surprisingly, that it was not always good. He underlines the success of reform movements and equally demonstrates the ways in which tensions between reform ideals and worldly realities endured. These frank insights are as refreshing as they are convincing.
This volume is a truly novel synthesis, with equal emphasis on both those elements. It is a book that establishes high expectations for itself—and lives up to them spectacularly.