This study analyses empirically how built environment affects school travel with a focus on independence from adults and travel mode. Students in three elementary schools—Chinan, Jingmei and Xinhwa—in Taipei’s Wenshan District are analysed after questionnaire surveys. The survey data are analysed using nested logit models at two decision levels. Analytical results indicate that high shade-tree density and high sidewalk coverage encourage children to walk to school independently, while large block sizes and increased intersection numbers discourage children from walking to school independently. Furthermore, although high building density, high vehicle density and diversified mode option encourage children to travel home after school by walking, bus or vanpool, block size and road width discourage children from so doing. These results are mostly similar to the findings of previous studies, although they also have some differences. Based on the empirical evidence presented in this study, three strategies are recommended for reshaping the built environment in Taipei: compact structure, pedestrian-friendly design and frequent bus services.
References
1.
Bagley, M.N. and Mokhtarian, P.L. ( 2002) The impact of residential neighborhood type on travel behavior: a structural equations modeling approach, The Annals of Regional Science, 36, pp. 279-297.
2.
Ben-Akiva, M. and Lerman, S.R. (1985) Discrete Choice Analysis: Theory and Application to Travel Demand. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
3.
Black, C., Collins, A. and Snell, M. ( 2001) Encouraging walking: the case of journey-to-school trips in compact urban areas, Urban Studies, 38(7), pp. 1121-1141.
4.
Bradshaw, R. ( 1995) Why do parents drive their children to school, Traffic Engineering and Control, 36(1), pp. 16-19.
5.
Bradshaw, R. and Jones, P. ( 2000) The family and the school run: what would make a real difference? Scoping Report to the AA Foundation for Road Safety Research, carried out by the Transport Studies Group, University of Westminster.
6.
Brandon, P.D. and Hofferth, S.L. ( 2003) Determinants of out-of-school childcare arrangements among children in single-mother and two-parent families, Social Science Research, 32, pp. 129-147.
7.
Cervero, R. ( 1996) Mixed land-uses and commuting: evidence from the American housing survey, Transportation Research A, 30(5), pp. 361-377.
8.
Cervero, R. ( 2002) Built environment and mode choice: toward a normative framework, Transportation Research D, 7(4), pp. 265-284.
9.
Cervero, R. and Duncan, M. ( 2003) Walking, bicycling, and urban landscapes: evidence from the San Francisco Bay area. Working Paper No. 713, Transportation Center, University of California.
10.
Cervero, R. and Kockelman, K. ( 1997) Travel demand and the 3Ds: density, diversity, and design , Transportation Research D, 2(3), pp. 199-219.
11.
Chen, W.H. ( 2001) The road environment for the pedestrians in elementary school: a case study of Taipei City. MA thesis, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan (in Chinese).
12.
Crane, R. ( 2000) The influence of urban form on travel: an interpretive review, Journal of Planning Literature, 15(1), pp. 3-23.
13.
Department of Transportation of Taipei City ( 2001) Data Survey and Models Calibration for the Comprehensive Transportation Planning of Taipei Metropolitan Area (in Chinese).
14.
Dowling, R. ( 2000) Cultures of mothering and car use in suburban Sydney: a preliminary investigation, Geoforum, 31, pp. 345-353.
15.
Ewing, R. and Greene, W. ( 2003) Travel and environmental implications of school siting . United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
16.
Frank, L. and Pivo, G. ( 1994) Impacts of mixed land use and density on utilization of three modes of travel: single-occupant vehicle, transit, and walking, Transportation Research Record, 1466, pp. 44-52.
17.
Golob, T.F. and Recker, W.W. ( 2003) Relationships among urban freeway accidents, traffic flow, weather, and lighting conditions, Journal of Transportation Engineering, 129(4), pp. 342-353.
18.
Handy, S. ( 1996) Urban form and pedestrian choice: study of Austin neighborhoods , Transportation Research Record, 1552, pp. 135-144.
19.
Hanson, S. and Pratt, G. ( 1995) Gender, Work, and Space. London: Routledge.
20.
Institute of Transportation (2001) 2001 highway capacity manual in Taiwan. Institute of Transportation, Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Taipei .
21.
Jacobs, J. ( 1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House.
22.
Kerr, J., Rosenberg, D., Sallis, J.F. et al. (2006) Active commuting to school: associations with environment and parental concerns, Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38(4), pp. 787-794.
23.
Kuo, T.C. ( 2000) Urban land use impacts on shopping trips mode choice. MA thesis, National Cheng Kung University (in Chinese).
24.
Lin, J.-J. and Hsiao, P.C. ( 2006) Strategy development of mixed land-use for restraining trip generation in Taipei City, Transportation Research Record , 1983, pp. 167-174.
25.
Lin, J.-J. and Yang, A.-T. ( 2009) Structural analysis of how urban form impacts travel demand: evidence from Taipei, Urban Studies, 46(9), pp. 1951-1967.
26.
Mackett, R. ( 2002) Increasing car dependency of children: should we be worried? , Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers , Municipal Engineer, 151(1), pp. 29-38.
27.
McDonald, N. (2006) Children’s travel patterns: evidence from the 2001 national household travel survey. Paper presented at the Transportation Research Board 2006 Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, January.
28.
McDonald, N. ( 2007) Active transportation to school: trends among U.S. schoolchildren, 1969-2001, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 32(6), pp. 509-516.
29.
McDonald, N. ( 2008a) Children’s mode choice for the school trip: the role of distance and school location in walking to school, Transportation, 35(1), pp. 23-35.
30.
McDonald, N. ( 2008b) Household interactions and children’s school travel: the effect of parental work patterns on walking and biking to school, Journal of Transport Geography, 16, pp. 324-331.
31.
McMillan, T. ( 2005) Urban form and a child’s trip to school: the current literature and a framework for future research, Journal of Planning Literature, 19(4), pp. 440-456.
32.
McMillan, T. ( 2007) The relative influence of urban form on a child’s travel mode to school, Transportation Research A, 41(1), pp. 69-79.
33.
Morris, J., Wang, F. and Lilja, L. ( 2001) School children’s travel patterns: a look back and a way forward. Paper presented at the 4th Australasian Transport Research Forum, Melbourne, April.
34.
Parish, S.L. and Cloud, J.M. ( 2006) Child care for low-income school-age children: disability and family structure effects in a national sample, Children and Youth Services Review, 28, pp. 927-940.
35.
Rodriguez, D.A. and Joo, J. ( 2004) The relationship between non-motorized mode choice and the local physical environment, Transportation Research Part D, 9(2), pp. 151-173.
36.
Schlossberg, M., Greene, J., Phillips, P.P. et al. (2006) School trips: effects of urban form and distance on travel mode, Journal of the American Planning Association , 72(3), pp. 337-346.
37.
Schwanen, T. ( 2007) Gender differences in chauffeuring children among dual-earner families, The Professional Geographer, 59(4), pp. 447-462.
38.
Schwanen, T. and Mokhtarian, P.L. ( 2005) What if you live in the wrong neighborhood? The impact of residential neighborhood type dissonance on distance travelled, Transportation Research D, 10, pp. 127-151.
39.
Stefan, K. and Hunt, J. ( 2006) Age-based analysis of travel by children in Calgary, Canada . Paper presented at the Transportation Research Board 2006 Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, January.
40.
Su, C.M. and Chen, Y.H. ( 1999) Management strategies of traffic safety for elementary school students, in: Proceedings of the 6th Transportation Safety Conference, Taipei, pp. 129-139 (in Chinese).
41.
Timperio, A., Ball, K., Salmon, J. et al. (2006) Personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30(1), pp. 45-51.
42.
Ulfarsson, G.F. and Shankar, V.N. ( 2008) Children’s travel to school: discrete choice modeling of correlated motorized and nonmotorized transportation modes using covariance heterogeneity, Environment and Planning B, 35(2), pp. 195-206.
43.
Vovsha, P. and Petersen, E. ( 2005) Escorting children to school: statistical analysis and applied modeling approach, Transportation Research Record , 1921, pp. 131-140.
44.
Yarlagadda, A.K. and Srinivasan, S. ( 2008) Modeling children’s school travel mode and parental escort decisions, Transportation, 35, pp. 201-218.
45.
Zhang, M. ( 2004) The role of land use in travel mode choice, Journal of the American Planning Association, 70(3), pp. 344-360.
46.
Zwerts, E. and Wets, G. ( 2006) Children’s travel behavior: a world of difference . Paper presented at the Transportation Research Board 2006 Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, January.
