The Human–Computer Interaction of Cross-Cultural Gaming Strategy

Abstract

This article explores the cultural dimensions of the human–computer interaction that underlies gaming strategies. The article is a desktop study of existing literature and is organized into five sections. The first examines the cultural aspects of knowledge processing. The social constructs technology interaction is discussed. Following this, the effects of a gamer's experience level and game preferences are examined. Game conditions, scripting, and design principles are discussed. Finally, ideas and concepts for the future of these areas are presented.

Keywords

computer gaming cross culture game design game strategy human-computer interaction

Introduction

With the popularity of computer gaming, the encounter between games and culture has become inevitable. While cross-cultural research in other fields has increased end-user understanding and acceptance, cross-cultural understanding of gamers has been lacking. Applying cross-cultural gaming strategies would allow game developers to design culturally sensitive applications that are tailored to the player's cultural background. Research in cross-cultural gaming strategy must be understood from the perspective of knowledge processing, social constructs, gamer experience/preference, and game design to broaden the scope for game developers.

Knowledge Processing

Research has shown that differences exist between cultures with regard to thought processes and physiology of the brain (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009). The findings also indicate that these cultural differences affect the way people interact in cyberspace and its related areas. Gaming strategies can be influenced by a player's thought process (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009). People from different cultures may process similar variables or attributes. However, varied interpretations of these variables or internal attributes could lead to different behaviors as an end result. Thus, variables embedded in computer games could cause players to process them differently, which could result in the deployment of a different strategy. For example, faced with a time constraint and impending attack, some gamers may choose to go on the offense while others may elect a more defensive strategy.

Several studies have found that a key component of gaming strategy is problem solving. This is a subclass of knowledge processing. Strohschneider found five components of culture that influence problem solving (Strohschneider & Guss, 1999). These include the following:

predictability of the environment

exposure

legitimacy of norms and value system

power distance and social hierarchy

individualism versus collectivism.

Knowledge processing is also a key component in Chakraborty's Cross-Cultural Hybrid Model (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009). Both models mentioned have been influenced by Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions model, thus supporting a relationship between knowledge processing and culture (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009).

Differences can be found in the type of content used by different cultures as well as the type of content or technology that is produced (Okazaki, Skapa, & Grande, 2008). O'Hagan notes “… every area of a game is heavily influenced by the culture that produced it” (O'Hagan, 2009, p. 215). This area of research does not give any indication of differences in the way the content is used. However, the fact that certain cultures prefer certain styles of content has been used as a launching point to explore potential differences that may exist in those cultures because of what that content entails (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999).

Further research has shown that not only there are social differences between cultures, as Hofstede notes, but also that people from different cultures do use their brain differently to solve the same types of visual and perception tasks (Prensky, 2001). A recent study began with the hypothesis that cultural experience leads to less brain activation when dealing with tasks that are culturally preferred. The results of the brain imaging conducted on their participants revealed this hypothesis to be true (Hedden, Ketay, Aron, Markus, & Gabrieli, 2008).

Hedden et al. report significant changes from culture to culture (Awasthi, Chow, & Wu, 2001; Chuah, Hoffmann, Jones, & Williams, 2007; Hedden et al., 2008). One study on gambling found that Chinese players may take riskier chances depending on their perception of luck, while North American gamblers take more gradual chances as they become more comfortable in the game-play (Oei & Raylu, 2009). Although this study does not directly pertain to computer gaming, it is valuable to the strategy aspect of how different cultures play the same game. Many computer games are based on chance. Only further research will be able to determine whether the findings of the study could work in the context of cross-cultural computer gaming strategies.

Neurological research of cognitive brain processes has reported that individuals from Western societies possess greater activity in the absolute dimensions of the brain while those from Eastern cultures, particularly East Asian cultures, possess greater activity in the relative dimensions (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999). These absolute dimensions govern independent behaviors, whereas relative dimensions govern interdependent behavior. Further research based on the mathematical elements of the cognitive process demonstrated the application of behavioral research. Research has already formulated a mathematical model in a two-stage game which consisted of production and negotiation with the result of cooperation among subjects (Calabuig & Olcina, 2009). Reynolds et al. in a number of papers (Reynolds, 1994; Reynolds & Ali, 2008; Reynolds, Kohler, & Kobti, 2003) demonstrated the reality of cultural algorithms and their use in multiple industries based on behavioral and genetic analysis.

Education has fueled further study in the area of gaming and psychology in reference to culture. Upcoming generations are experiencing striking neurological growth as a result of digital stimulation.

Although the vast majority of today's educators and teachers grew up with the understanding that the human brain doesn't physically change based on stimulation it receives from the outside—especially after the age of 3—it turns out that view is, in fact, incorrect … The brain constantly reorganizes itself all our child and adult lives, a phenomenon technically known as neuroplasticity. (Prensky, 2001, p. 1)

The ideal of neuroplasticity is strikingly important here in the fact that the earlier belief that the human brain does not change based on outside stimulation after 3 years of age is incorrect. The brain constantly reorganizes itself, which allows for current and past observation to affect choice. Language and culture, together with technology, have a great bearing on the process of neuroplasticity.

Children raised with the computer think differently from the rest of us. They develop hypertext minds that leap around. It is as though their cognitive structures are parallel, not sequential. Linear thought processes that dominate educational systems now can actually retard learning for brains developed through game and Web-surfing processes on the computer. (Prensky, 2001, p. 3)

If human development is anchored on stimulation, it is possible that culture-specific applications could provide tremendous benefit to education (Palomba, 2006; Prensky, 2001; Simpson & Stansberry, 2009).

Several studies point out the significance of culture-based cognitive user maps for creating simulations. Based on the user's cultural disposition toward varied cognitive processes, learning environments could be tailored to meet their needs (Eden, 1994; Hanneman, 1988). While directional flow captures the travel through a simulated environment, the thought and cognitive process governs strategies used in a game. Zhang, Luo, Blumberg, Shen, and Su (2009) found that the variance of problem solving strategies had a great effect on the cultural opinion and success of a game (Strohschneider & Guss, 1999).

Neural research is examining cross-cultural differences in communication and simple tasks, but has not gone as deep as cross-cultural gaming (Prensky, 2001). These findings are fundamental to the full understanding of cultural differences. They could be used as launching points for researchers in addressing those differences as they relate to gaming. These basic findings of cultural differences have spurred relatively little research. Neural research could help us better understand knowledge processing which in turn may someday take computer gaming to a new level. To grasp a more developed understanding knowledge processing, experience must also be studied.

Social Construct

Perhaps the most famous study on social constructs comes from the Dutch psychologist, Geert Hofstede (1991) whose work has been used as the foundation for many studies on culture as relating to technological matters (Palomba, 2006; Zaharias, 2009). Through a questionnaire collected from IBM employees over several years, Hofstede was able to define a series of cultural dimensions that could be applied to a culture (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009).

Different cultural meanings may be attributed to several different elements. These have been found to be important in cultural studies as well as computer and video game development (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009; Koda & Ishida, 2006; Park, Han, Park, & Park, 2009; Strohschneider & Guss, 1999). These include the following:

○ Symbols—The age-old element of symbols in areas such as culture, language, and religion has varied in meaning from culture to culture. Something that might seem benign in the Western world might refer to a Middle Eastern curse or an Asian curse word (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009).

○ Sounds—Many cultures place great importance on different animals, traditions, and songs. Identifying appropriate, yet nonthreatening sounds could affect the cultural user (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009).

○ Language—In simple design, the use of appropriate language or the availability of the appropriate language is vital to the end-user experience (Park et al., 2009).

○ Selection of Words and Phrases—Similar to the instructions, the use of words or phrases must be appropriately chosen to prevent the user from becoming confused or offended (Park et al., 2009).

○ Expressions—Humans use a variety of facial expressions to communicate. Use facial expressions in games design should be wary of culture-specific expressions. Koda and Ishida established an incredible attachment of individuals to their cultural expressions by studying avatars (Koda & Ishida, 2006).

○ Words, Sounds, and Mistranslations—Sounds of a foreign language can also have great affect or offense on another foreign user (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009).

○ Selection of Human Voices—The identification of social standing in a cultural system can have an effect on which human voices might be used in a game. For different cultures, a man or woman's voice might be more effective, or perhaps an older man's voice or younger woman's voice (Park et al., 2009).

○ Behavior Stereotyping—The traditional viewpoints from intercultural relations typically involve the stereotyping of populations. For example, an individual from a European country might immediately stereotype any American as a consistent television addict (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009).

○ Clothing—Common intuition, in addition to studies, would suggest that respect for cultural clothing should be considered in game development (Park et al., 2009).

○ Social Hierarchy—The effect of an individual's cultural social hierarchy can have a great effect on game acceptance. Strohschneider and Guss reported on the effect of social hierarchy on problem-solving scenarios which are directly applicable to gaming (Strohschneider & Guss, 1999). Their experiment used a computer-simulated program where a tribe of people were in need of help. The study group was built of people from German decent and people of Indian decent. Strohschnider and Guss found that the participants of German decent were more likely to gather information about the current state of the tribe and were more willing to intervene to help the tribe as they saw fit. The participants of Indian decent were more interested in the background or way of living of the tribe. Essentially, two different cultures approached the same issue with two different methods, thus creating the possibility that culture and decisions can be linked.

Cross-cultural research in marketing, human resources, organizational behavior, psychology, computer science, and communication has increased the basis of cross-cultural understanding. Elements of this research have direct and indirect application to the advancement of cross-cultural gaming. Some common issues that have been found to be addressed by game developers include “religious, sexual, racial and other references concerning moral stances” (O'Hagan, 2009). It is important to address local variables so that gamers from different cultures can have a similar gaming experience. Developers sometimes typically use new features such as different dialog to accommodate the target culture of a localized game (O'Hagan, 2009, p. 5). Human translators must collaborate with developers so that the game is free of inappropriate translations (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009). Products tailored to meet the needs of customers based on the customer's cultural background achieve success and acceptance. When marketing interactive products, such as games, a focus on cross-national market segmentation gives companies a better outlook on the success of their product (Lee, Suh, Kim, & Lee, 2004).

Research has indicated a demand for attention to the cultural background of a customer (Hofstede, Steenkamp, & Wedel, 1999). Many companies have unsuccessfully tried to enter into the global gaming market without addressing cultural differences (Lee et al., 2004). Several Korean game companies have failed in their attempt to enter the Japanese gaming market primarily due to a lack of consideration for the Japanese gaming culture, leading to ineffective marketing of their games. The research indicated five distinct factors associated with the marketing of electronic games:

○Convenience of the Operator—The operator is the object used by a player to interact with the game. The easier it is for the players to manipulate this object, the more likely they are to continue interacting with the game (Lee et al., 2004).

○Suitability of Feedback—During the course of playing a game, players are presented with information in response to performing an action. The more this information leads to player growth within the game the more likely they are to continue (Lee et al., 2004).

○Reality of Design—The quality of an interface can make the player feel as though the gaming world is a part of the real world (Lee et al., 2004).

○Precision of Information—How well information enables the player to achieve game goals (Lee et al., 2004).

○Involvement of Virtual Community—A computer enabled space for communication between participants of a game world provides users with higher levels of positive influence to continue participating (Lee et al., 2004).

Lee et al. (2004) point out how each of these areas has a distinct correlation to cultural elements. Moreover, the research conducted found notable differences in the characteristics between Japanese and Korean gamers, such as age, technological knowledge, and time spent gaming (Choi, Park, & Kim, 2001; Hofstede et al., 1999; Lee et al., 2004).

Attributes such as age, gender, and a relationship with social structure are factors of games that are made and played. According to Hou (2008), “online role-playing games, similar to other media forms, are extensions of cultures.” The research targeted the gender roles of avatars in Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGs) between U.S. and Taiwanese players. The results from this article asserted that U.S. players possess nearly twice as many male avatars (61%) as female avatars (31%). By comparison, Taiwanese players choose male avatars 58% of the time and female 38%, a difference of 13%. In addition, the Taiwanese MMORPGs had an 11% ambiguity rate where gender was not identifiable. U.S. MMORPGS were found to exhibit no ambiguity as to the gender of the character (Hou, 2008, p. 13).

Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) have also assisted in the formation of online cultures such as guilds and clans within the game which have extended to a physical subculture or hybrid culture gamers (Baron, 1999; Hou, 2008; Lindtner et al., 2008; Zaharias, 2009). “Digital-physical hybrids can be deeply intertwined with socio-economic decisions, expressions of trust and friendship, and in-game dynamics entangled with a regulatory political system.” With the creation of MMOGs, many bonds can be created in this digital realm between users of all kinds. Much like real world connections, trust, friendship, and even love can be created among players. With that being stated, game dynamics can intertwine with our conventional political system and create as many difficult decisions as presented in reality (Lindtner et al., 2008). Data mining cross-cultural interactions from MMOGs, “could lead to leaps in cultural understanding.” The idea of data mining is to examine information and observe if there is any particular pattern emerging from the given context. This ideal could be infused with the information inside player interactions from MMOGs that could lead to a great understanding of choice preceding cultural inheritance (Numrich, 2008).

An understanding of the social makeup of a culture has been proven to increase a developer's ability to make games that are culturally friendly. The United States military has used culture-specific game development to stimulate learning environments among soldiers. According to research, “A cross-cultural communication and socio-cultural serious game can bring insights to a different cultural setting while immersive, virtual serious gaming lets you practice and learn in a realistic, social environment” (Khaled, Barr, Biddle, Fischer, & Noble, 2009, p. 32). Developers can address controversial cultural subjects such as congruence based on social norms, informational social influence, and cross-cultural collaboration in games to create healthier player environments (Calabuig & Olcina, 2009; Phillips et al., 2009; Spector, 1999)

Gamer Experience

Gamer experience can be a precondition and postcondition of knowledge processing. Human decisions are formed based on how information is perceived. Through experience, humans learn what decisions work well for them and in turn create a preferable course of actions when presented with a dilemma. Therefore, a game player's perception of the information presented can be captured and compared with the player's previous experiences whether they are cultural experiences or other.

Greenfield and Cocking (1996) carried out a cross-cultural study of American and Italian computer gamers to examine how well video games could be used as a learning tool. Their study found that Italians had a more negative perception of computer games and as a result performed poorly compared with the American subjects. The need for culture-specific gaming has been further explored by Okazaki et al. (2008) on a study of American, Czech, and Spanish adoption of mobile gaming. The researchers found culture-specific trends in mobile gaming needs and habits with respect to age, technological learning capacity, and gender. The study reported on the varied popularity of mobile gaming regardless of culture (Brogden & Williams, 1996; Chan, Frydenberg, & Lee, 2007; Constantiou, Papazafeiropoulou, & Vendelo, 2009; Ganesh, Kumar, & Subramaniam, 1997; Marks, 1991; Okazaki et al., 2008; Rayboum, 1997; Rosen & Weil, 1995; Woolnough et al., 1997). Zhang et al. (2009) carried out a cross-cultural experiment to test if video gaming experience developed problem-solving skills in both experienced and inexperienced game players across American and Chinese players. By measuring four areas of game completion, the researchers reported that experienced video game players scored higher than both the players who did not have as much experience and those with no experience. The experienced players provided more problem-solving strategies and insight than the nonexperienced players. The findings reported that Chinese players applied more strategies on games they enjoyed while American players applied strategies to both games they enjoyed and did not enjoy.

Game Preference

The analyses of cross-cultural gamer preferences have led to many interesting discoveries. Chen, Duh, Kolko, Whang, and Fu (2006) found that the game Everquest, which experienced great popularity in the United States, was not popular in South Korea. Similarly, the game Lineage was popular in South Korea but not so much in the United States. Lineage only gained popularity in Taiwan after the game was tailored for their culture (Green, 2001). Griffiths, Davies, and Chappell (2004) carried out a demographic survey of online gamers of “Everquest” and found that approximately 76% were from North America, 20% from the Europe, 2% from Australia, and less than 1% from Asia. Their results suggest that online gaming experience and popularity vary from culture to culture.

Hutchinson (2007) uses the term binary combat games when referring to combat games which rely on rapid eye movement and finger control instead of differences in the character's combat programming. Hutchinson (2007) believed that character selection was based on cultural influences. For example, in Soul Calibur II the character models seem to be tailored to either Asian decent or European decent. It is then implied that users of certain descents will choose a character based upon their reflected culture. Yates and Littleton (1999) found that males typically had more gaming experience than females (Green, 2001). They reasoned that the lack of a “girl” character made it harder for women to relate to the storyline.

Studies with World of Warcraft have focused on both the cultural impact and the culture developed around the game, specifically in China. Lindtner et al. (2008) conducted research based on personalized interviews with participants. Interview content involved questions ranging from game specific surveys to the social culture, the players experienced when playing the game. The location of game-play seemed vital to almost all players. Chinese players almost exclusively preferred to gather at the local Internet cafe in groups to play World of Warcraft. The Information collected from the interviewees revealed that the Internet cafe was part of a “hybrid cultural ecology” grown from collaborative game-play. These cafes ranged in size, shape, color, and socioeconomic standing. Players were reported to select their cafes based on their subcultural preferences. World of Warcraft players would gather at these locations to log in and play the game. The participants shared that individuals played collaboratively and independently in this space, developing trust. Connecting both the physical and the digital in this atmosphere, players centered relationships and interactions around the Internet cafe (Crabtree & Rodden, 2008). Ducheneaut, Yee, Nickell, and Moore (2006) collected various types of data on game-play for World of Warcraft. They surveyed players on their gaming experiences and found significant differences in the character selection by different genders. They found that female players preferred the human, night elf, and gnome races which typically look more esthetically pleasing to the eye, while the male players preferred the dwarf, orc, and tauren races that look more masculine in nature. Paul (2010) carried out interviews with World of Warcraft players regarding different strategies using player versus environment and player versus player situations. He reported that findings were unclear as to whether strategies do exist within each player environment. He suggested that further cross-cultural studies are required to determine the nature of these strategy patterns.

Game Conditions and Scripting

Research findings suggest that differences in understanding between cultures are correlated with the user's end-game result and game goals. Users with greater cultural understanding and understanding of learning environments would achieve different results than those users with less cultural understanding and different environmental understanding (Bond & Park, 1991). From a game developer's perspective, these elements would be grouped under the game conditions and scripting. The following game conditions and goals were found to have significant effect on the cultural understanding of the game:

○ Terminating Conditions—If a game is not open-ended, the terminating conditions could have an effect on the player. Suppose a game ends in death from an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japanese, and American individuals will view this differently (O'Hagan, 2009).

○ Gaming Goals—Everything from collecting coins to amassing points can be viewed differently in each culture. While a franchise such as the Super Mario Brothers has had extensive success in the Japanese and American cultures, these cultures thrive on games with individual goals. A culture based on cooperative goals, such as those mentioned above, might not appreciate such individualistic rewards systems in a game (O'Hagan, 2009).

Movement and Directions Within a Simulation—Western cultures are, for example, accustomed to road signs, while other cultures are not. Such considerations in an automobile-based game could have subtle or even drastic changes from culture to culture (O'Hagan, 2009).

Instructions and Help Text—Commands given by a program or NPC (Non Play Character) could be interpreted differently based on the command hierarchy or social hierarchy within a culture. If care is not taken in word instructions or commands based on culture, such commands could come off as abrasive, inconsiderate, or even offensive by another culture (O'Hagan, 2009).

Directional Flow—Written flow and language flow can differ greatly from culture to culture. While effective or pertinent information might be displayed, the end-user might be confused on its presentation (O'Hagan, 2009; Strohschneider & Guss, 1999).

Timing of Events in a Simulation—The position of events in a game based on time or day might change greatly based on the culture's daily habits (O'Hagan, 2009).

Days and Dates—Holidays, vacation, and religious observance vary from culture to culture. The involvement of certain days might cause discontentment among certain cultural groups of players (O'Hagan, 2009).

Problematic Topics—Cultures deal with controversial topics differently. These might include the following: death, superstitions, war and violence, politics, religion, gender, numbers, colors, gestures, handedness, and machines/technology (Chakraborty & Norcio, 2009; Silver, 1978).

These elements suggest a need for cultural algorithms. By connecting culture with scripting, games can become more culture specific. Reynolds and (Reynolds, 1994; Reynolds & Ali, 2008; Reynolds et al., 2003) proposed cultural algorithms in the physical design of game controller. However, further cross-cultural research into the use of these algorithms is required.

Design Perspectives

As cross-cultural research across other disciplines advances, a significant gap between culture and game design perspectives persists. Older game development curriculum and theory has given way to updated, culturally specific design perspectives. Ruiz, Salimi, Chodnok, and Ha (2009) found that games such as Tuk-Tuk were developed as video game adaptations of culturally historic games. The game's focus on cultural heritage, similar to Mikovec, Slavik, and Zara (2009), recognizes the importance of cultural accuracy. Games can be used to show culture and provide a nonthreatening environment to interact with it. Jungmann and Fitzpatrick found the game Sim-Suite was used to express the everyday dynamics of culture (Jungmann & Fitzpatrick, 2009; Rocca, Hunike, Spector, & Zimmerman, 2002; Ruiz et al., 2009).

Designing games and media based on elements of subculture and sociopolitical models made drastic differences in game success and popularity (Peregrine, 2008). “Video games exist on a number of planes. At one level, they are commodities: cultural products bought and sold for profit within world economy. At another level, games serve the ubiquitous desire of escape and fantasy” Video games are cultural products on two levels. The first is the creators have possibly inscribed part of their cultural background into the game during design. They may do this intention or in a subconscious effort. Second, video games provide an escape or fantasy for many users that allow them to go from one cultural background into another (Leonard, 2003). Development of games as cultural products requires thorough investigation of human and nonhuman characteristics (Aylett et al., 2009; Garling & Evans, 1992; Morgan, 2000).

Understanding of the social makeup of a culture has proven to increase a developer's ability to make games that are culturally friendly (Calabuig & Olcina, 2009; Phillips et al., 2009). The United States military has taken a concentrated interest in the development of cultural understanding, especially in gaming. With recent conflicts that are described across multiple news mediums, we observe that the military operates in increasingly diverse cultural environments. The ability of military personnel to assess the cultural environment of their operating area greatly impacts their mission outcomes. Using topologies for cultural character understanding, the military is investing heavily in data mining on massively multiplayer games. One of these is a first-person perspective multiplayer game titled America's Army. Gaining a better understanding of culture and intercultural relations will provide massive benefits to military decision making (Numrich, 2008).

Design perspectives extend beyond the design of the game itself to the developer's mindset. Game developers in Japan put players in the developer's perspective, while developers from the United States tend to put the player in the digital world and let them define how they play (O'Hagan, 2009). O'Hagan conducted a small experiment to study the effects of localization and development mindset. The experiment involved a native English speaker who played a localized European version of the Japanese game “Ico” for approximately 11.5 hr. Game-play was recorded and the player kept a log after each pause/break. The researchers found that the American subjects did not like the lack of camera views, lack of cut scenes, the predetermined save points, and how the game abruptly ended. Over 80% of the Japanese subjects preferred all these features (O'Hagan, 2009). These view perspectives altered the performance of a player. An effective method for creating dynamic games might involve the inclusion of different cultural users in game design. These dynamic games would then be more effective in meeting the needs of the target populations and providing the correct viewing perspective (Pederson, 1995).

Conclusions

Many developers use players' game experiences and preferences in order to design a game. The main reason for this is so that the game can be profitable, but it is also so that players of all different cultures can be entertained and enjoy the game. So what concepts go into game design? How do developers create the game script and other in game conditions leading to their success in different cultures?

The field of cross-cultural gaming is in its infancy. Overall, it would seem there is nothing definitive about cultural influences in gaming. Many researchers have failed to identify relevant cultural dimension. Further, studies that do have reported significant results did not perform experiments solely on cultural dimensions. However, results suggest that there is a strong relationship on game decision making. If the game developers use cross-cultural game design methodologies and algorithms, they will improve the end-user (or player) experience. Ultimately, cross-cultural gaming research could affect other technological fields by creating improved human–computer interfaces.

Reynolds' work (Reynolds, 1994; Reynolds & Ali, 2008; Reynolds et al., 2003) points to a possible expansion of research in cultural algorithms. With games being developed as increasingly cultural products, attention to culture should extend into programming as well. Use of algorithms and culture-specific coding could further allow for the cultural adaptation of computer games. By adding the increased depth provided by O'Hagan's work (O'Hagan, 2009) in cultural expression, a video game can be tailored to the interactions of a variety of cultural users. As research in cultural algorithms is pursued, application of the algorithms could extend beyond computer games. Virtually any electronically based application could be customized culturally, allowing developers to transcend cultural barriers.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Joyram Chakraborty is an assistant professor of information systems at Towson University since 2012. He was also an assistant professor of computer science at The State University of New York, The College at Brockport from 2009. He collaborates extensively with IBM TJ Watson and Intel Research labs on internationalization and cross-cultural usability research. He regularly participates on planning and program committees for national and international conferences. He has scientific papers in various journals as well as the proceedings of numerous national and international conferences.

Anthony F. Norcio is a professor of information systems at the University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) and has been at UMBC since 1988. He was also the codirector (with Dr. Marion J. Ball) of the World Health Organization (WHO)/Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) collaborating center for health informatics. He has served as an external advisor to the PAHO and has also served as a consultant to the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) on computing and health informatics. He has also served as a computer scientist at the Artificial Intelligence Center of the Naval Research Laboratory; and he has also served as the scientific advisor to the Mathematical, Computer, and Information Sciences Division of the Office of Naval Research. He regularly participates on planning and program committees for national and international conferences. He has published dozens of scientific papers in various journals as well as the proceedings of numerous national and international conferences.

Jacob J. Van Der Veer is pursuing an undergraduate degree in computer science at The State University of New York (SUNY) Brockport.

Charles F. Andre is a facilities manager for ColoCrossing, a hosting provider headquartered in Buffalo, New York. He holds a bachelors of science degree in computer information systems from The State University of New York (SUNY), The College at Brockport. His primary research interests involve how people adapt and react when using information technology (IT). Beyond studying cross-cultural gaming strategies, He has coauthored conference proceedings involving IT adoption within small businesses.

Zachary Miller is a quality assurance analyst at Manning & Napier Advisors, LLC. He has also served as an accuracy specialist at Pictometry International. He received his bachelors of science (BS) in computer information systems from The College at Brockport.

Alexander Regelsberger is an executive support specialist at Constellation Brands, Inc. in Victor, NY. Previously employed with Office Depot's IT Planning department and Robert Bosch GmbH's Field Services department, he has contributed to the IT and mobility strategy at all three companies. He completed a BS in philosophy from SUNY Brockport in 2010 and went on to complete an MS in business administration from Georgia State University in 2012.

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