Examining Sojourners as Visual Influencers in VFR (Visiting Friends and Relatives) Tourism: A Rhetorical Analysis of User-Generated Images

Phase 1: Expert interviews sampling and method of analysis

Purposive sampling was used for this phase (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Seven staff from three primary organizations responsible for the marketing of Wellington were interviewed. The purpose of including multiple stakeholder organizations is to increase the trustworthiness of the qualitative inquiry, where triangulation of sources is a recommended strategy (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). Experts held managerial positions in marketing or marketing communications in the identified organizations, and were involved in the planning and execution of internal or international destination marketing strategies of Wellington (Campbell, 1955). According to Hulland et al. (2018) most studies in marketing that survey key informants, include only one or two informants. To gain a more accurate account, and increase trustworthiness of findings, where possible, at least two informants from each organization were interviewed for this study (Golden, 1992; Kumar et al., 1993).

With the consent of the participants, the 30 to 50-minute semi-structured interviews were voice-recorded, and later transcribed verbatim (O’Leary, 2004). The interviews discussed marketing practices and the use of imagery that underpins the marketing strategies of Wellington. Data were managed using NVivo12 and content analysis was used to identify salient themes that described the content categories used in the marketing of Wellington (O. H. Jenkins, 1999). The findings were discussed among the authors, validating the results (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). NVivo’s ability to manage and provide a variety of analytical tools to visualize and analyze the interview data collected in Phase 1 as well as the unstructured data collected in Phase 2 (i.e., coder content and sojourner-UGI), made it suitable for this study (Barreda & Bilgihan, 2013; Wilk et al., 2019).

Phase 2: Sojourner UGI sampling

Purposive sampling was used to recruit sojourners from Wellington, through online networking sites, noticeboards in tertiary institutions, as well as specialty shops frequented by members of the sojourner community (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). To participate, respondents had to meet the following criteria: hold citizenship from outside New Zealand, reside in Wellington, possess a non-tourist visa, and use online networking platforms to connect with overseas friends and relatives. Given that English may not be the first language of members of the sojourner community, recruitment advertisements and instructions were reviewed by a panel of international students to reduce ambiguity (Lee & King, 2016). Based on the feedback received, instructions were reworded to improve clarity.

This research employs participant-generated images as a method of collecting visual data (Balomenou & Garrod, 2014). Sojourners submitted images of Wellington that they have created and shared online or created new images they would consider sharing with overseas friends and relatives, with the knowledge that the images would be later shared with their overseas contact for a separate study. Each participating sojourner submitted three images for each category identified in Phase 1: food and drinks/dining, nature/scenic landscapes, events, urban city, and your pick. The category your pick was included to offer an opportunity to tap the experiences of sojourners—to uncover and examine valued concepts and categories tied to the destination, unspecified by the authors.

As presented in Table 1, a total of 33 qualified sojourners participated in the study. 33.3% of participants were male and 66.7% were female sojourners. Four hundred ninety-five images were submitted by a diverse set of participants, who were nationals from 24 countries across Asia (63.6%), Africa (9.1%), Europe (18.2%), North (6.1%), and South America (3.0%). The proportions reflect numbers published by Immigration New Zealand (2020), where a majority of international students and work visa holders are reported to originate from countries in Asia and Europe. The high proportion of female to male participants in this study reflects the findings of the Pew Research Center, where women compared to men preferred visual social media platforms (Anderson, 2015).

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Table 1.

Participating Sojourner Details (N = 33).

Profile	Description	%
Gender	Male	33.3
	Female	66.7
Age	20–24	12.1
	25–29	33.3
	30–34	42.4
	35–39	9.1
	40–44	3.0
Annual income (before tax)	No income	27.3
	NZD 1–25,000	27.3
	NZD 25,001–50,000	15.2
	NZD 50,001–70,000	18.2
	≥NZD 70,001	12.1
Highest qualification	Bachelor’s degree	27.3
	Postgraduate diploma	9.1
	Postgraduate degree	60.6
	Other (Overseas, NCEA level 3 equivalent)	3.0
Occupation	Administrative	12.1
	Analyst	3.0
	Policy advisor	3.0
	Programmer	6.1
	PhD researcher	36.4
	Researcher	6.1
	Student	33.3
Region of origin	Africa	9.1
	Asia	63.6
	Europe	18.2
	North America	6.1
	South America	3.0
Time in Wellington	<6 months	18.2
	6–12 months	9.1
	1–2 years	39.4
	3–5 years	27.3
	>5 years	6.1

Information on online UGI sharing behavior of sojourners with overseas friends and relatives was also collected. As shown in Figure 1, instant messaging platforms, such as WhatsApp and Facebook messenger, were found to be popular among sojourners for pushing UGI to overseas networks. As presented in Figure 1, 39.4% of sojourners shared UGI through instant messaging platforms a few times a week. Figure 1 also shows that all sojourners shared images on instant messaging platforms, signaling the significance of closed group networks for the dissemination of UGI. Additionally, participating sojourners were asked if they had received visits or wanted to receive visits (or more visits) from friends and relatives. All, but nine missing responses, indicated sojourners either had received visits or were looking forward to visits (or more visits) from overseas friends and relatives.

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Figure 1.

Sojourners’ UGI sharing habits on different online platforms.

The submitted images were coded by three coders, independent of the research team (Lacy et al., 2015). Krippendorff (2013, p. 128) highlights the importance of selecting coders who are “familiar with the phenomena under consideration.” The coders selected were sojourners who were not part of the study and have lived in Wellington for at least a year. A pre-test was conducted to help the authors refine instructions in the coding protocol, and to ensure ease of use of the recording system (Krippendorff, 2013). To reduce recording and coding errors, the images were embedded into five Qualtrics forms (http://www.qualtrics.com) and distributed fortnightly. Coders reviewed the images and selected the category that best represented each image (see Table 2). Should the image fall outside the categories, the coder selected “others.”

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Table 2.

Category Descriptions.

Category	Description
Food and drinks/dining	Images where the focus is on food/drinks, dining environments (e.g., restaurant/bar settings and food trucks).
Nature/scenic landscapes	Elements of nature (flora/fauna). Green spaces and landscapes with minor human-related elements (e.g., buildings), and where the focus of the image is on open spaces.
Urban city	Urban spaces, city skylines, infrastructure, and residential areas (e.g., shopping streets, buildings, housing areas, street art installations, graffiti art, transport).
Events	Images taken from official local events (e.g., fireworks at the waterfront, Chinese New Year, markets/festivals, exhibitions, art/cultural performances, sports events) and unofficial gatherings (e.g., barbecues, lectures, birthdays).

Images with identifiable features were blurred before inclusion in the forms to maintain respondent anonymity (Prosser, 2005). An acceptable Fleiss kappa of .77 was achieved (Landis & Koch, 1977), indicating inter-coder reliability. Images that had conflicting results were discussed among the authors, and if unresolved, discarded. In some instances, sojourners were found to provide duplicates, and images not of Wellington. For example, an image of an American football game was submitted and discarded. In total 453 images were evaluated. Coders were also tasked to list physical items found in each image in the distributed forms, allowing the authors to triangulate findings in Phase 2, reduce the “threat of hidden variables” and demonstrate trustworthiness (Hunter, 2012, p. 427).

Phase 2: Sojourner UGI method of analysis

Foss (1994) rhetorical schema was adopted as the principal guiding framework for analysis. In light of the substantial number of images, Foss (1994) framework was expanded to include content analysis to systematically identify substantive physical/manifest items found in the images. Content analysis is based on “counting the frequency of . . . visual elements” (Rose, 2016, p. 88), commonly used to identify the manifest content of photographs (Deng & Li, 2018), and provides a “basis for responsible judgments and verbal concepts” (Collier, 1967, p. 72). Substantive stylistic elements such as color and composition that contribute to the function of the images were also identified and discussed among the researchers (Foss, 1994; Gleeson, 2011; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006; Yang et al., 2007). Similar to Uchinaka et al. (2019), this study adopts a broadly post-positivist perspective, where qualitative data is used to identify significant patterns. Table 3 outlines the steps of the rhetorical analysis.

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Table 3.

An Expanded Application of Foss (1994) Rhetorical Schema.

Identify physical/manifest items

• Coders listed manifest or physical items found in images.

• Content compiled and used alongside images in the identification of subcategories. Visual and text content managed using NVivo 12.

• Creation of subcategories.

Identify and assess how well the function is communicated

• Identify and note stylistic and substantive elements that contribute to the appeal of the image and support the function/connoted meanings (e.g., color, composition, and context of images).

• Compare images to identify different stylistic strategies used to articulate the function.

• Identify the function/connoted meanings implied through the interplay of manifest and stylistic elements.

Scrutiny of the function

• Reflect on the function and soundness of the assessment.

• Identify emergent/alternative functions.

Identifying physical/manifest items

As a first step, data garnered through the coding exercise were populated into NVivo 12. Using the data of manifest items identified by the coders, a word-frequency query was conducted for each content category. The word clouds in Figure 2 provide an overview of the results of the word-frequency analyses, where words most frequently used by the coders when coding the physical items in the images, are prominently displayed.

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Figure 2.

Results of NVivo word-frequency analyses for Phase 1 predetermined categories.

The results of the word-frequency analyses provided an initial understanding of substantive manifest items; where the distribution of different physical articles that support the basic function or meaning of each category were identified. The results exemplify how physical elements act as visual vernaculars in the visual composition of functions and meanings of destinations. The list of items generated by the coders was used alongside the content analyses of images, in the identification of subcategories/substantive dimensions that were discussed and agreed upon among the authors. The data were compiled, managed, and analyzed using NVivo 12.

Identifying and assessing the function

The results of the content analyses, presented in Table 5, provided the foundation for this stage in the analysis. The purpose of identifying and assessing the elements that contribute toward the function of sojourner UGI is to gain an understanding of the interplay between physical and stylistic elements carefully selected by sojourners, where description facilitates interpretation (J. E. Schroeder, 2006). In this phase of analysis, elements such as color, composition, and context were noted, examined, and compared. Given the exploratory nature of this study, and the number of images received, this phase of analysis provides only a broad overview of key findings.

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Table 5.

Summary Results of Content Analyses.

Categories and subcategories	Frequency	Percentage	Coder produced sample keywords
Events	N = 88
Public events	74	84.09	Half marathon, cricket match, fireworks display, dragon dance, art event
Personal events	14	15.90	Picnic, graduation, informal gathering, informal event, bonfire, lecture
Food and drinks/dining	N = 93
Servicescape	24	25.81	Restaurant, indoor, dining, bar, farmland, scenic, mobile bar
Drinks	15	16.13	Coffee, matcha, wine, beer, cocktail
Cuisine	54	58.06	Asian food, sashimi, eggs benedict, waffles, burger, cakes, pasta
Urban city	N = 88
Buildings	33	37.50	Office building, houses, residential buildings, shopping buildings, beehive
Cityscape	21	23.87	Roads, shops, sidewalk, people, boats, harbor, marina, wharf side, waterfront
Shopping	4	4.55	Shopfront, people, mannequins, clothes, books, sunglasses, display, shop interior, shelves, photo
Transport infrastructure	19	21.59	Train tracks, cars, roads, street light, aeroplanes, airport, cable car, railway
Urban art	11	12.50	Street art, art installation, sculpture, art sculpture, artwork, statue
Nature/scenic landscape	N = 91
Coast	43	47.25	Beach, seaside, sea, coastline, open water, sea, rocks, beach view
Greenscape/flora	44	48.35	Grass, hills, trees, greenery, hillside, bush, green hills, nature backdrop, flowers
Fauna	4	4.40	Wildlife, birds, fauna, sheep
Your pick	N = 93
City	30	32.26	Building, beehive, art, path, bus-stop, roads, cars, wharf, urban space, residential building, railway station
Events	12	12.90	Art, performer, gathering, people, guitar, flags, tent, stalls, cake, candles, celebration
Food and drinks/dining	5	5.38	Noodles, restaurant, dining, drinks, plate, fork, glass, chocolates
Nature/scenic landscape	31	33.33	Bird, hillside, sea, sky, gull, greenery, garden, stream, tress, flowers
Other	15	16.13	Magazine, bench plaque, note on bench, rifles, gun shop

Events: From the content analysis (Table 5), 84.09% of the events were public events, such as sporting, cultural, and other local community events hosted in Wellington. Beyond public events, 15.90% of images submitted were of personal events and get-togethers, such as graduation, informal picnics, and international association gatherings. Sojourners exercised variety in the composition of the images, where all 10 photo regions identified by Yang et al. (2007) were observed. The majority of images in this category featured people performing or engaging in the events (Figure 3), where the inclusion of others adds to the atmosphere, conveying the notion of a fun, friendly, vibrant, and active community (Schmallegger et al., 2010; Urry, 1992).

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Figure 3.

Examples of images submitted for events.

Colors captured from costumes worn by performers, artwork on display, and the decorations found in events, as exemplified by images in Figure 3, add to the sense of vibrancy and friendliness. Moreover, the diverse demographic of people, in differing life stages and cultures, coupled with the variety of both public and private events, such as those illustrated in Figure 3, articulate the concept of inclusiveness and demonstrate the plethora of possible experiences and activities available for different groups of visitors. Within the event category, images of self or significant others (e.g., friends, partners, and children) were found embedded in the images, demonstrating the inclusiveness of the city, where sojourners become active participants. Images of smiling sojourners and significant others, within the context of the event, add emotional appeal (see Figure 3, Image 3). In addition, characters embedded in the images become credible endorsers who demonstrate a variety of possible experiences offered by the destination (J. Schroeder, 2013).

Food and drinks/dining: As shown in Table 5, salient images in this category were of different cuisines offered in Wellington (58.06%) that describe and support the notion of Wellington as a food destination. The range of international cuisine photographed articulates the concepts of diversity and multi-culturalism of Wellington. Images provided also presented aspects of servicescapes (Bitner, 1992) that offer a window into the variety of dining options available, as exemplified in Figure 4. The furnishing of the restaurants and bars, as well as the artful plating of food and drinks captured, describe a modern and creative cosmopolitan city. People were also featured in several images submitted, adding to the atmosphere of the surrounding, conveying the concept of friendliness and the ability to enjoy different dining options with significant others, as captured in Image 5 (Figure 4). In addition, sojourners provided images of home meals and fresh fruit that demonstrate the use of fresh produce, typically associated with New Zealand, and the availability of ingredients to recreate meals reminiscent of home that echo again the concept of a diverse and cosmopolitan city.

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Figure 4.

Examples of images submitted for food and drinks/dining.

As presented in Figure 4, images in this category focused on the center and the whole region of the image. The positioning of the artfully plated food and drinks in the center and the whole region of the images intensifies the vivid color and detail that seek to arouse the senses and engage the viewer (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006; Lofgren, 1999). As seen in Image 4 (Figure 4), the cherries occupy the whole region of the image, intensifying the glossy ruby redness of the cherries, and articulating the concept of freshness. The strategy of metaphoring was also observed (Mick, 1986; Urry, 1992). For example, Image 1 (Figure 4), shows a bottle of wine labeled Martinborough against a scenic background, where the viewer draws parallels between the tranquil backdrop of Wellington and the bottle of wine, which collectively communicate the sense of leisure and respite. Collages were used to add to the appeal of the images, where the deliberate association of images provides commentary on the context (Phillips et al., 2014). As shown in Image 6 (Figure 4), a collage was used to visually narrate an experience at a local bar, which captures and describes aspects of the modern servicescape.

Urban city: Buildings were the focal point of 37.5% of images submitted in this category, and comprised images of commercial, residential, and iconic buildings. Iconic buildings tell the history and heritage unique to New Zealand and serve to capture the identity of Wellington. Among the images submitted for iconic buildings was the Parliament building. Contrasted against the lush green of the Wellington town belt reserves, the bold and distinct concrete structure of the Parliament building communicates Wellington’s position as New Zealand’s capital city (Figure 5, Image 4). Images of tall commercial buildings, as well as those that capture aspects of transport and infrastructure, bolster the capital city narrative of Wellington. Few urban city images showcased aspects of shopping (4.55%), suggesting its lack of pertinence as a valued attribute. Similar to Image 1 (Figure 5) images were primarily in landscape form and focused on the horizontal region, where clusters of residential and commercial buildings convey the idea of a dense, compact city. Bright city lights against the night sky further articulate the concept of a modern capital city—electric and charged with activity (Figure 5, Image 3).

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Figure 5.

Examples of images submitted for urban city.

Other than buildings, the submissions featured urban art (12.50%), such as sculptures and graffiti (Figure 5, Image 2), conveying the narrative of a creative and colorful urban destination, countering notions of “stuffy” and “dull,” often linked to national capitals and government cities (Peirce & Ritchie, 2007). Sojourners also provided a variety of perspectives, with images that capture the city against different backdrops or scapes. Several images included the picturesque waterfront and green hills that surround the city, situating Wellington within the New Zealand context, famous for its landscapes. Further, the presence of greenery that envelopes Wellington, as exemplified by Images 4 and 6 (Figure 5) communicates the proximity and access between the city and nature, a unique characteristic of Wellington.

Nature/scenic landscapes: Salient images found in this category, as presented in Table 5 and illustrated in Figure 6, are of the coast (47.25%) and green scapes (48.35%) that fit into the 100% Pure New Zealand rhetoric, where the natural beauty of New Zealand become drivers of tourism (Sun et al., 2014). Images that photograph people were predominantly of solo individuals (Figure 6, Images 1, 2, and 3)—conveying the sense of seclusion, and vastness of unspoilt nature that situates Wellington in the overarching New Zealand narrative. Moreover, the character/s or figures tended to be photographed in the corner region of the image or distant from the photographer (Figure 6, Images 1, 3, 6). This deliberate choice in positioning provides primacy and focus on scenic landscapes.

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Figure 6.

Examples of images submitted for nature/scenic landscapes.

Hues such as blues and greens were dominant in the images in this category, strengthening the argument for the vastness of space. To demonstrate further the vastness of the New Zealand landscape, a majority of images were composed focusing on the horizontal region of the image, as depicted in images in Figure 6. Images of walking trails, such as that captured in Image 5 (Figure 6), and outdoor attire worn by those photographed describe the opportunity for outdoor activity and adventure, synonymous with New Zealand. A small number of images (4.40%) captured New Zealand’s fauna (Figure 6, Image 4), supporting the notion of proximity and centrality of nature to Wellington.

Your pick: From the results of the word-frequency and content analysis, a majority of images submitted in “your pick” portray physical articles such as buildings, events, and scenery, and could fall under one of the earlier identified fixed categories. Only a small number of images fell outside the fixed categories; and given the disparate concepts portrayed, a global category or theme could not be constructed.

Scrutiny of the function and emergent meanings

Sojourners’ familiarity and extended duration of stay in the host destination enable them to seek, perform, and frame photogenic experiences that communicate destination attributes described by the DMOs (see Table 4). The paradigmatic and syntagmatic choices of sojourners (Mick, 1986), highlight their authority and power to choreograph information, where sojourners are found to “attract visitors through selective destination information sharing” (Choi & Fu, 2018, p. 53). The images submitted suggest that sojourners draw from their fluidity, shifting between tourist and resident when composing images that function to provide vivid descriptions of the host destination. According to Urry and Larsen (2011, p. 179), “tourists not only frame and explore, they are also framed and fixed,” seeking out images seen on brochures and social networking sites. As tourists, sojourners become part of the hermeneutic circle—seeking, consuming, capturing, and sharing images of iconic markers, identified to be unique and different from their home environment (Huang et al., 2017; O. Jenkins, 2003). In this study, images of iconic markers such as the Parliament Building, and the Wellington Cable Car were submitted (Figure 5, Images 4 and 6).

Conversely, as residents, they provide breadth in the types of images created, offering perspectives from personal spaces, such as neighborhoods they live in or inside homes, where everyday encounters provide an opportunity to frame extraordinary sights for dispersed audiences. Further, sojourners embed images of themselves, significant others, and personal articles (Figure 3, Images 1, 2, and 3) contributing to the atmosphere and injecting authenticity that can potentially evoke emotion. Photographs are known to be evocative and have “significant rhetorical advantages, such as appealing more effectively to pathos (emotions)” (Birdsell & Groarke, 2007, p. 108; Blair, 2004). In further support of this argument, studies demonstrate how emotions shape perceptions and resulting behaviors (Holbrook & Batra, 1987; Leisen, 2001). The emotions embedded and the relationship between sojourner and their overseas connection, as well as the context in which the visual communication is pushed and “read” (on personal devices), illuminate the function of UGI as authentic depictions of the host destination, unfiltered for marketing collateral, and difficult to replicate by DMOs (Lutz & Collins, 1991). The findings add to the pertinence of sojourner UGI, where authenticity is proven to improve message receptivity (Labrecque et al., 2011).

Several images were laced with symbols that connect to sojourners’ home cultures. The symbols, such as traditional clothes worn, home meals, selection of dining options, and culturally specific events, were evident in the images submitted. This strategy was pronounced in the categories: “events” and “food, drinks/dining” (Figure 3, Image 1 and Figure 4, Image 5). Further, research highlights that one of the reasons that encourage VFR tourism is the ability of the visiting friend or family member to feel at home while away (Shani, 2013; Uriely, 2010). Familiar contexts of events and objects, therefore, are likely to be received with “delight, affection, nostalgia, or other positive attributes,” where sojourners’ social relations and awareness of cultural and ideological conventions enable sojourners to compose UGI that provide host destinations the relevance and resonance needed to reach the VFR segment (Foss, 1993, p. 126; Gretzel, 2017).

On closer assessment, as “detailed personal scripts” of experiences that reflect new and normal life patterns of sojourners (Tussyadiah, 2010, p. 157), the images submitted function to articulate the blending of the concept of home and away. Scholars highlight that the “temporary between-society” status sojourners hold, results in sojourners having to experience a period of cultural adjustment (L. Brown, 2009, p. 504). Robinson (2014, p. 180) points to the pertinence of photography, arguing its vital role in “social integration, and family membership.” A child, whose family originated from Vietnam, is seen posing in front of a Chinese dragon at a Lunar New Year parade (Figure 3, Image 1), exemplifying how home traditions such as cultural celebrations are observed, perpetuated, and performed in the host destination. In the same vein, emergent studies in UGI identify the ability to engage with friends and family back home as one of the reasons tourists share UGI (Nikjoo & Bakhshi, 2019; Wang et al., 2017). For sojourners, UGI become symbolic articles of performance that help maintain their identity as well as social and emotional ties with connections back home, during the liminal period of the sojourn.

Moreover, the images allow sojourners to demonstrate their construction of home in the host destination, where visual articulations of home as a physical place of dwelling, building of routines, and space for fostering social connections were observed from the UGI (White & White, 2007). Figure 3, Image 4 provides the viewer access to a private backyard barbecue, where personal social interactions and integration of the sojourner in the host destination are communicated. Further, the images of culturally diverse ethnic activities and food captured (e.g., Figures 3 and 4), convey the state of the cultural landscape of Wellington, where often the “collective activity, behaviour, and influence” of migrant communities “affect the culture and tourism offerings” available for residents and tourists (Griffin & Dimanche, 2017, p. 109). Concomitantly, the images shared depict the cultural attitude of Wellington, which could be perceived as inclusive and culturally accepting. The findings support prior research that suggests the importance of sojourners as cultural brokers who help mitigate cultural differences (Shani, 2013).

Beyond images that reinforce mainstream touristic representations, two images submitted could be interpreted as negative. One image captured the interior of a hunting store, focused on a wall of rifles, which could convey concepts of danger and risk, given reports in media on gun violence. Another image showed a gray, rainy day in Wellington, which connotes the sense of dreariness. Thus, negative UGI could function as articles of value co-destruction, where the negative connotations could affect viewers’ perception of the destination.