Abstract
During online purchases, tourists typically begin by retrieving the names of accommodations and subsequently proceed to explore additional information such as peer reviews and the host’s gender. However, it remains unclear whether and how name cues bias tourists’ attitudes and purchase decisions, and how additional information may modify these biases. In a series of studies, we find, firstly, that tourists perceive accommodations with feminine names as being warmer, while those with masculine names are seen as more competent. Secondly, the host’s gender and peers’ ambivalent reviews, can moderately adjust but cannot reverse the initial judgments of warmth or competence induced by the names. Thirdly, this effect is consistent across different tourists’ genders. These findings contribute to our understanding of how tourists formulate judgments in contexts of uncertainty and abundant information, underscore the significance of the initial cues given by the names of accommodations, and expand upon the heuristic bias theory.
Keywords
Introduction
Peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodations refer to the provision of short-term lodging space by hosts to tourists (Dolnicar, 2019). Transactions within this market involve interactions between unfamiliar individuals, leading to significant uncertainty stemming from information asymmetry (Luo et al., 2023). The absence of official host certification may expose tourists to potential risks (Xu et al., 2023), and, following the COVID-19 pandemic in particular, tourists are increasingly concerned about uncertainties and associated risks (Kim et al., 2021). As a result, in their decision-making tourists frequently seek reliable information to alleviate these uncertainties, and a variety of factors have been found to influence their decisions, including the host’s characteristics such as physical appearance (H. Li et al., 2023) and gender (Pino et al., 2020), attributes of rental properties like room type (Bresciani et al., 2021), room descriptions (Gao et al., 2022) and room images (S. Zhang et al., 2022), online marketing strategies such as instant booking services (Feng et al., 2022), and electronic word-of-mouth such as peer reviews (Liang et al., 2020).
When considering making a booking, tourists typically encounter the names of accommodations before any other information. These names are prominently displayed on the cover page of peer-to-peer accommodation platforms, serving as the initial cues for tourists. Although names do not provide any relevant information about the actual quality of the accommodations, tourists may have biased perceptions of quality based on the association between names and representative knowledge stored in memory. For example, consumers tend to assume that brands with signals of smaller size in their names are more feminine and warmer than those with signals of larger size, as females are typically physically smaller than males (K. Zhang et al., 2022). Therefore, when encountering accommodations with gender-associated cues in their names, tourists may rely on representative knowledge from their memory to quickly estimate the quality of the accommodations.
However, previous studies have largely overlooked the potential significant impact that the names of accommodations may have on tourists’ judgment of rental properties. The influence described is here referred to as the “name heuristic bias”. Tourists may rely on representative and easily accessible knowledge, such as gender stereotypes, that align with gendered names, which in turn influences their judgments. In other words, on the basis of gender stereotypes, tourists may associate accommodations with names containing cues implying feminine characteristics with warmth, while they associate accommodations with names containing cues implying masculine characteristics with competence.
After making an initial judgment based on the names of accommodations, tourists may explore peer reviews as well as the gender of hosts. Both peer reviews and the host’s gender independently play significant roles in tourists’ decision-making (Cohen & Reed, 2006; Filieri, 2016; Ghimire et al., 2022; H. Li et al., 2023; Pino et al., 2020). After receiving this new additional information, tourists may reassess their initial judgment. However, it is uncertain whether the initial assessments of warmth or competence will be reversed following exposure to additional new information. If tourists maintain consistent evaluations before and after ascertaining the host’s gender and peer reviews, the gendered name effect emerges as a strong heuristic cognitive bias. Conversely, if substantial changes occur in tourists’ evaluations subsequent to them acquiring supplementary information, the gendered name effect must be weak.
To address the gaps in existing research, we have conducted a series of studies to investigate whether the names of accommodations alone influence tourists’ initial perceptions of warmth or competence. Additionally, we examine how additional information such as peers’ ambivalent reviews and the host’s gender can potentially alter their initial attitudes. The present study contributes to the heuristic bias theory by supplementing key intangible naming scenarios with easily accessible external information in the context of shared accommodations, establishing a strong heuristics bias theory. We emphasize the significant role that the names of accommodations, particularly those with gender connotations, play as valuable indicators for tourists’ judgments. Furthermore, we underscore that the femininity associated with warmth is more crucial than the masculinity linked to competence when it comes to shared accommodations. This also challenges the subjective assumption that competence may take precedence over warmth in broader travel contexts post-COVID-19.
Literature Review and Hypothesis Development
Literature on Names
Studies on names have focused on personal names and the names of tangible products and brands. Personal names serve as reflections of individuals’ personalities and social connections (Finch, 2008), making them more easily retrievable from memory compared to other human characteristics (Piccininni et al., 2018). A similar effect can be observed in product names, where research has demonstrated that incorporating desirable sounds into these names can significantly enhance consumers’ positive feedback (Argo et al., 2010; Botner et al., 2020; Motoki et al., 2022). In addition, the inclusion of size cues, implied motion signals, alpha-numericity, and healthy cues can also influence consumers’ perception and decision-making (Gunasti & Ross, 2010; Irmak et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2023; K. Zhang et al., 2022). These studies provide valuable insights but their findings may not elucidate tourists’ decision-making when selecting accommodations on online platforms.
Unlike consumers selecting tangible products in person, tourists seeking accommodations online (rendering the product intangible) are often motivated by a desire for authenticity and social interaction (Mody & Hanks, 2019; So et al., 2020). For example, individuals who provide profile names tend to receive greater recognition on online sharing platforms (X. Liu et al., 2019). Consequently, tourists may perceive the names of accommodations differently compared to consumers in conventional settings. Moreover, accommodations typically entail higher costs than retail products (Zou & Petrick, 2020). This contextual disparity implies that a favorable name may not necessarily enhance willingness to pay as effectively in the accommodations context as it does in the manufacturing context.
Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes refer to beliefs regarding the typical attributes, characteristics, and behaviors exhibited by females and males (Ellemers, 2018). Warmth and competence serve as fundamental components of gender stereotypes (Ellemers, 2018; Fiske et al., 2002; Pino et al., 2020). Females are commonly perceived as being emotionally warmer than males while males are often associated with higher levels of competence (Babin & Boles, 1998; Brough et al., 2016; Ellemers, 2018). However, gender stereotypes can lead to unfairness. For example, teachers with traditionally masculine names have been found to be consistently rated higher than those with feminine names (MacNell et al., 2014). Even when presented with identical resumes, male candidates may be perceived as more competent than their female counterparts (Moss-Racusin et al., 2012). The stereotype misleads people into perceiving female students as less talented than their male peers (Leslie et al., 2015). These findings indicate that in various contexts individuals tend to exhibit a biased preference for men despite similar characteristics between genders.
Conversely, in the tourism industry, females are more likely to receive better evaluations. The tourism industry provides females with enhanced training and education opportunities, thereby promoting female employees’ growth and fostering their entrepreneurship (J. Zhang & Zhang, 2020). Within peer-to-peer platforms, female hosts tend to experience higher demand due to their strong association with warmth (Pino et al., 2020). Female service providers are widely perceived as delivering superior service quality (Fischer et al., 1997). Additionally, tourists exhibit greater satisfaction when interacting with service robots that have a feminine appearance (Seo, 2022). Some managers of tourism companies believe that female employees demonstrate heightened responsibility compared to their male counterparts, and display exemplary behavior and meticulous attention to detail while seamlessly integrating within the company’s culture (Costa et al., 2017).
Though gender stereotypes may give rise to prejudice, efforts aimed at combating them serve merely to diminish their prevalence rather than to eradicate them entirely (Charlesworth & Banaji, 2021). Napp and Breda (2022) collected data from 500,000 individuals across 72 countries and discovered that in 71 of these countries girls were more inclined to perceive themselves as less competent or talented compared to boys. Similarly, Charlesworth and Banaji (2021) analyzed data from a staggering 1.4 million participants and arrived at the conclusion that gender stereotypes permeate all demographic groups. They even suggested that it might take a century to achieve complete gender equality in this respect.
Females and males exhibit different behavioral intentions. Females are more inclined to engage in environmentally friendly behaviors (Brough et al., 2016) while males are less willing to express emotions (Fisher & Dubé, 2005; Nikolova & Lamberton, 2016). In the context of tourism, both male and female travelers tend to revisit destinations that align with their ideal gender identity (Pan et al., 2021). However, these studies were conducted after tourist trips were taken, and previous research has not explored the relevance of gender in tourists’ pre-trip evaluations of accommodations.
Heuristic Bias Theory
Heuristic biases elucidate the decision-making process of individuals when faced with uncertainty (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). Individuals form judgments based on representative knowledge (such as frequency, probability, sequence, and correlation), available knowledge (including familiarity, salience, recentness, effectiveness, imaginability, and illusoriness), or initial numerical values (Mussweiler & Strack, 1999; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).
The representative heuristics refer to the tendency of individuals to assess the likelihood of object B belonging to class A based on their shared salient attributes (Kahneman & Tversky, 1972). For instance, gender stereotypes indicate a strong association between warmth and femininity, or between competence and masculinity. This understanding can be applied in evaluating accommodations with gendered names and may lead to arbitrary estimations that accommodations with feminine names are more likely to be warmer than accommodations with masculine names.
The availability heuristic refers to the tendency of individuals to evaluate object B based on easily recollected and relevant instances (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). For example, when presented with a rental property similar to one they have recently lived in, individuals can quickly retrieve their experience and judge the accommodations accordingly.
The anchoring and adjustment heuristic refers to the bias in individuals’ judgment of an object toward an initial numerical anchor. In the price perception literature, for example, differences between reference price, acceptable price, and actual price can influence consumer judgments (Book et al., 2016; Wertenbroch et al., 2007). When tourists are presented with a higher reference price for a hotel, they tend to be willing to pay higher prices (Book et al., 2016). Under conditions of uncertainty, people’s willingness to pay is particularly susceptible to anchoring biases (Simonson & Drolet, 2004).
Our focus here is on the representative heuristic, as it holds particular relevance for tourists’ estimations of accommodations with gendered names. Stereotypes often serve as significant representative knowledge utilized to make estimations in uncertain situations (Stolwijk & Vis, 2020). In a test conducted by Tversky and Kahneman (1983), “Bill” was described as intelligent and strong in math but unimaginative, compulsive, and lifeless. Solely based on this description, 87% of participants made the assumption that Bill was an accountant. In an experiment involving AI-generated texts featuring first-person language and family topics, participants tended to believe that these texts were authored by humans due to their language styles (Jakesch et al., 2023). Gendered names in tourists’ initial (online) judgments of accommodations convey information related to gender stereotypes, leading tourists to rely on these stereotypes as representative knowledge when estimating the accommodations.
However, previous studies have focused on a weak representative heuristic in simplified one-stage scenarios, where participants are presented with a single piece of information. They have largely overlooked the implications of additional information. In practice, in the context of peer-to-peer accommodations, travelers receive multiple pieces of information about the accommodations sequentially. When subsequent information contradicts initial estimations, tourists may adjust their judgments accordingly. Therefore, it is crucial to examine how the proposed gendered name effect changes after multiple pieces of additional information are provided.
Gendered Names of Accommodations, Tourists’ Judgments, and Subsequent Outcome
Gendered Name Effect
The stereotype content model posits that individuals make judgments about others in two primary dimensions: competence and warmth (Fiske et al., 2002). The assessment of warmth involves perceptions of kindness, friendliness, and sincerity, while the evaluation of competence is associated with intelligence, capability, and skillfulness (Wang et al., 2016). Research on the stereotype content model and gender stereotypes has consistently shown that females are often perceived as high in warmth but low in competence, whereas males are stereotypically seen as high in competence but low in warmth (Ellemers, 2018; Fiske et al., 2002; Pino et al., 2020; Pogacar et al., 2021).
Although the stereotype content model was initially developed for the purpose of assessing individuals, it has found extensive application in brand research. Consumers tend to perceive brands as human entities and attribute personality traits to them (Chen & Hang, 2021; F. Li & Ma, 2023; Pogacar et al., 2021). In the context of tourism, Chen and Hang (2021) demonstrated that hotels engaging in corporate social responsibility activities are perceived as warmer.
Gender stereotypes are representative knowledge that can be accessed and utilized to assess accommodations based on their gendered names. When individuals encounter gendered names, they often rely on gender stereotypes as a foundation for evaluations. Accommodations associated with feminine names are frequently perceived as warmer, while those linked to masculine names tend to be associated with competence. In this evaluative process, gendered names act as reference points, leading to distinct judgments influenced by preconceived notions related to gender. These judgments may impact consumer purchases given the consistent emphasis in studies on the significant roles of warmth and competence (F. Li & Ma, 2023; Yoganathan et al., 2021).
Judgments of warmth are often more readily made compared to judgments of competence, and exert a stronger influence on estimates (A. J. C. Cuddy et al., 2011). This is because warmth differentiates between allies and adversaries and so holds primary significance, while competence, which is a measure of the potential abilities of others, is considered secondary (A. J. Cuddy et al., 2007). That is, the emphasis placed on warmth in evaluating others and its ease of discernment can be attributed to the evolutionarily fundamental self-protective mechanism (Mascaro & Sperber, 2009; Wojciszke et al., 1998).
In the context of tourism, judgments of warmth play a more pivotal role in tourists’ decision-making compared to competence. Accommodations perceived as warm are considered more trustworthy, sincere, and friendly, qualities highly valued by tourists (H. Li et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2019). People are more inclined to reserve accommodations with warm attributes (Pino et al., 2020). Warmth represents the highest level of reciprocal and emotional exchange between tourists and hosts, while competence implies a polite yet distant relationship focused on efficiency (Xue et al., 2022). Consequently, we hypothesize:
H1. Tourists exhibit a greater willingness to pay higher prices for accommodations with feminine names than for accommodations with masculine names (Total effect).
H2. Initial estimations of warmth (H2a) and competence (H2b) mediate the relationship between name gender and initial willingness to pay.
Moderating Effect of Tourist Gender on the Gendered Name Effect
Self-congruity theory posits that brands exhibiting similar images or personalities to individual consumers are more likely to be preferred by those individuals (Boksberger et al., 2010; Sirgy, 1985). Similarly, the tourism literature demonstrates that tourists tend to visit destinations or to purchase products that align with their self-images (Hung & Petrick, 2010; Kang et al., 2013; Sirgy & Su, 2016; Stokburger-Sauer, 2011; Usakli & Baloglu, 2011). Rental properties with feminine names are aligned with female tourists, while those with masculine names are aligned with male tourists, and gender stereotypes associate femininity with warmth and masculinity with competence (Charlesworth & Banaji, 2021; Napp & Breda, 2022). This representative knowledge enables tourists to make rapid but biased judgments of accommodations on the basis of their gendered names.
H3a. Female tourists tend to be willing to pay higher prices for accommodations with feminine names than for masculine names, whereas males tend to be willing to pay higher prices for accommodations with masculine names than for feminine names.
H3b. Female tourists perceive accommodations with feminine names as warmer than accommodations with masculine names; males perceive accommodations with masculine names as more competent than accommodations with feminine names.
Further Information and the Name Heuristic Bias
The Host’s Gender and the Name Heuristic Bias
After examining the names of accommodations and forming initial assessments, tourists may then become interested in the gender of hosts, which is a significant factor influencing their perceptions. Previous studies have demonstrated that tourists’ perceptions of warmth are higher for female hosts or service providers than for male hosts or providers (X. Liu et al., 2022; Pino et al., 2020).
In the peer-to-peer accommodation market, it is common for professional hosts to manage multiple listings. Research indicates that 62.5% of Airbnb hosts are multi-listing hosts (Dogru et al., 2020), with less than 25% of all hosts overseeing over 60% of listings (Gil & Sequera, 2020). This is likely to lessen the alignment between the gender of the names of accommodations and the gender of the host. Therefore, it is crucial to explore whether the gender of the host can modify tourists’ initial assessments.
In line with gender stereotypes, research has shown that female service providers tend to elicit higher levels of perceived warmth (Pino et al., 2020; Seo, 2022; Seo et al., 2024), while male hosts may enhance perceptions of competence. Consequently, when the gender of the host aligns with the gender cue of the names of accommodations, there is likely to be an increase in perceived warmth or competence. Conversely, if tourists discover that accommodations with feminine (masculine) names are managed by male (female) hosts, it may decrease their perceptions of warmth (competence), while perceptions of competence (warmth) may increase.
H4. The host’s gender has the potential to counteract the effects of gendered names. Specifically, if accommodations with feminine (masculine) names are managed by female (male) hosts, the perceived warmth (competence) will increase (H4a). Conversely, if accommodations with feminine (masculine) names are managed by male (female) hosts, the perceived warmth (competence) will decrease (H4b).
Peers’ Ambivalent Reviews and the Name Heuristic Bias
In order to make more informed decisions, consumers often seek additional information (Cohen & Reed, 2006). Within the context of the sharing economy, online peer reviews have emerged as credible sources of information (Filieri, 2016; Ghimire et al., 2022; H. Li et al., 2023). Peer reviews can influence tourists’ initial judgments regarding rental properties. Online reviews encompass ratings for both hedonic (related to pleasure and enjoyment) and utilitarian (related to functionality and practicality) attributes. Hedonic and utilitarian attributes are two fundamental dimensions in product evaluation. Hedonic attributes cater to consumers’ emotional and sensory needs by providing pleasure and enjoyment, while utilitarian attributes focus on practical features that fulfill consumers’ functional needs by emphasizing functionality, convenience, and efficiency (X. Liu et al., 2022; S. Liu & Mair, 2023). The attributes of room decoration and entertainment facilities are considered hedonic in nature as they cater to tourists’ desires for pleasure, whereas attributes such as location, cleanliness, and safety are utilitarian in nature as they address tourists’ practical and functional needs.
Hedonic attributes are closely associated with creating a warm atmosphere, while utilitarian attributes are linked to the provision of competent services (Chung et al., 2023; Kronrod & Danziger, 2013; X. Liu et al., 2022). In service contexts that prioritize hedonic experiences, tourists exhibit a preference for warm service robots (Ahn et al., 2022; X. Liu et al., 2022). Consumers perceive hedonic brands as warmer than utilitarian ones, and they perceive utilitarian brands as more competent than hedonic ones (Philipp-Muller et al., 2023). This distinction arises from the fact that warmth and hedonic attributes offer emotional and sensory pleasure, while competence and utilitarian attributes offer practical and efficient utility. Consequently, enhanced hedonic attributes can elevate perceptions of warmth, whereas improved utilitarian attributes can enhance perceptions of competence.
It has been demonstrated that extremely positive or negative ratings can significantly influence tourists’ willingness to pay (Yhee et al., 2023). Therefore, our focus lies on ambivalent reviews, specifically, those that positively rate the accommodations based on their hedonic attributes while negatively evaluating its utilitarian attributes, or vice versa. We refer to these as “hedonic-advantage reviews” and “utilitarian-advantage reviews,” respectively. Given the strong association between warmth and hedonic attributes as well as between competence and utilitarian attributes, peer reviews positively rating the hedonic aspects of the accommodations are expected to enhance perceived warmth, and conversely reviews positively rating the utilitarian aspects of the accommodations are expected to enhance perceived competence.
H5. Peers’ ambivalent reviews can counteract the gendered name effect. Specifically, when peer reviews emphasize hedonic advantages, tourists’ perceptions of warmth regarding accommodations with feminine names are enhanced (H5a). Conversely, when peer reviews highlight utilitarian advantages, tourists’ perceptions of competence regarding accommodations with masculine names are enhanced (H5b).
Overviews of Studies
The conceptual model of the study is presented in Figure 1. H1 concerns the total impact of the gender of the names of accommodations on willingness to pay, while H2 indicates the mediating role of initial judgments regarding warmth and competence. The gender of the name can bias tourists’ initial judgments, and this effect may arise for both female and male tourists (H3a and H3b). Furthermore, we examine the impact of additional information (the host’s gender, H4 and ambivalent reviews, H5) to determine if it affects the initial judgment. If the additional information does indeed affect the initial judgment, this indicates that the gendered name effect is weak; however, if it has little effect, this suggests that the gendered name effect is strong.
The conceptual model.
To test our hypotheses, we conduct five main experiments and two pretests, all utilizing data from Chinese participants. Initially, as all hypotheses are based on gender stereotypes, we verify the presence of gender stereotypes in Study 1 through the Implicit Association Test. Study 2 investigates whether the gender of a name can influence tourists’ initial willingness to pay (H1) and examines the mediating role of initial warmth (competence) judgments (H2). Studies 1 and 2 together confirm that when confronted with gendered names, tourists rely on gender stereotypes to form judgments. Additionally, Study 2 explores whether gendered names lead to more favorable outcomes (greater willingness to pay) than do non-gendered names. In Study 3, we separately investigate whether male and female tourists exhibit different levels of willingness to pay for accommodations with feminine gender compared to masculine gender (H3a) and evaluate the feminine versus masculine names differently in terms of both warmth and competence (H3b).
In Study 4, our objective is to examine whether the impact of the gender of names of accommodations is substantially influenced by the host’s gender and if the host’s gender can reverse tourists’ initial judgments (H4). This will be accomplished through a factorial between-subjects design with two factors: gendered name (feminine vs. masculine) and hosts’ gender (female vs. male). In Study 5, we investigate whether peers’ ambivalent reviews can reverse tourists’ initial judgments (H5).
Study 1: Presence of Gender Stereotypes
While numerous studies have revealed the presence of gender stereotypes (Charlesworth & Banaji, 2021; Napp & Breda, 2022), the precise relationship between gendered names and perceptions of warmth and competence, as well as the applicability of gender stereotypes to the names of accommodations, remain uncertain. Given that these form the fundamental premises of our research, we conducted an Implicit Association Test with a sample of 86 participants (50% female) recruited from the Credamo platform, following the methodology outlined by Greenwald et al. (2003). Credamo offers professional tools for conducting Implicit Association Tests. In this test, participants are assigned tasks through the platform and can complete them on their computers, using the keyboard to respond to questions. The platform is capable of recording each participant’s response times with millisecond precision. To ensure the accuracy of these measurements, the experiment is promptly terminated if participants navigate away from the experimental webpage.
The procedure is detailed in Appendix 1. Before the test, all participants were informed that if they no longer wished to continue in the research at any time, or if their current circumstances hindered their ability to concentrate fully, they had the option to withdraw from the experiment. Following this, all participants were given multiple opportunities to practice and familiarize themselves with the established protocols. In two sets of Implicit Association Tests, participants were instructed to categorize gendered names and attributes associated with warmth/competence into specific categories: as “feminine names or warmth” and “masculine names or competence” in one set of trials, or as “feminine names or competence” and “masculine names or warmth” in another set of trials (in randomized order). The hypothesis posits that if warmth (or competence) is indeed linked to and representative of feminine (or masculine) names, participants will exhibit faster response times when the categories align with gender stereotypes compared to when they do not.
The average D score was positive and significantly greater than 0 (D = .102, F(1,171) = 10.380, p = .002). This suggests that participants exhibited quicker response times when categorizing “feminine names or warmth” and “masculine names or competence” compared to when categorizing “feminine names or competence” and “masculine names or warmth”. These results provide evidence of an association between feminine names and warmth, as well as masculine names and competence, thereby supporting the application of gender stereotypes. Notably, the findings also reveal that individuals tend to rely on gender stereotypes to form judgments when presented with a gendered name.
Study 2: Gendered Name Effects
Pretest for the Gender of the Names of Accommodations
The pretest evaluated participants’ proficiency in correctly identifying the intended gender associated with the names utilized in the stimulus materials. Many fictitious gendered names were generated by four research assistants. Given that all participants in studies 1 to 5 are Chinese, the gendered names are Chinese. The Chinese names mentioned here do not include personal names or indicate the genders of the hosts; rather, they simply convey femininity or masculinity. For example, the name “Huayue Pavilion” conveys qualities such as tenderness, elegance, and romance. These qualities are strongly associated with femininity (Grohmann, 2009). Conversely, the name “Longteng Pavilion” typically suggests strength and dominance, embodying significant stereotypes commonly associated with men (Grohmann, 2009).
A total of 150 participants (50% female) were recruited through Credamo.com and presented with nine gendered names. Participants were instructed to categorize each name into one of three categories: masculine name (assigned a value of 1), indeterminate (assigned a value of 2), or feminine name (assigned a value of 3). Analysis of the results indicated that eight gendered names effectively conveyed gender information and met the criteria for inclusion in the main experiments, while one name that did not convey any gender-related information (i.e., was assigned a value of 2) was used as the gender-neutral name (see Table 1).
Results of Name Gender Estimation.
Main Experiments
Procedure
We determined the sample size using GPower 3.1, with the following input parameters: the number of groups (3), effect size (.25), significance level (.05), and power value (.95). The results indicated that each group should consist of at least 84 participants to achieve sufficient statistical power for testing. Consequently, we recruited a total of 267 participants from Credamo.com, exceeding the minimum requirement of 84 participants per group.
Following the procedures outlined by Pogacar et al. (2021), participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a group presented with the accommodation featuring a feminine name (Huayue Pavilion), a group presented with the accommodation featuring a masculine name (Longteng Pavilion), or a group presented with the accommodation featuring a gender-neutral name (Youran Pavilion; refer to Appendix 2 for details on the manipulation material). Subsequently, participants completed manipulation tests that assessed their perception of the gender associated with each name, using two measurement items (see Appendix 3 for details). To control for potential bias stemming from personal preferences toward specific names, participants also rated their liking of each name.
Following these initial tasks, participants were asked to rate the perceived warmth and competence of the accommodation. Warmth was assessed by having participants rate the degree to which the name conveyed warmth, kindness, friendliness, and good-naturedness. Perceived competence was evaluated by asking participants to rate the extent to which the name sounded competent, intelligent, capable, and efficient (Diamantopoulos et al., 2021; Hamdy et al., 2023; F. Li & Ma, 2023). These items were selected based on their proven effectiveness in measuring tourists’ perceptions of warmth and competence regarding destinations and tourism brands. All items were measured using a 7-point scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). Subsequently, participants were asked: “What is the maximum price you would be willing to pay per night for this accommodation?” (Simonson & Drolet, 2004). The measurements are presented in Appendix 3.
Lastly, participants were requested to provide demographic information, encompassing the frequency of booking shared accommodation, gender identification, age range, educational background, occupation, and income level. Gender was assessed using a single item (e.g., “Please indicate your gender: 1 = male, 2 = female, 3 = transgender, 4 = other”). Furthermore, an attention check was administered, in random order (refer to Appendix 3 for measurement details). After excluding participants who did not pass the attention check, a total of 264 valid responses were obtained (50.4% female; 68% in the age group 21–40 years). The participants’ demographic characteristics are reported in Appendix 4.
Manipulation Check
The perceived femininity of Huayue Pavilion was significantly higher than that of Longteng Pavilion (M_Huayue = 5.93, M_Longteng = 2.73, F(1,175) = 264.561, p < .001), while the perceived masculinity of Huayue Pavilion was significantly lower than that of Longteng Pavilion (M_Huayue = 2.07, M_Longteng = 5.60, F(1,175) = 317.890, p < .001). Youran Pavilion was perceived as having neither feminine nor masculine characteristics (M_femininity = 2.77, M_masculinity = 2.25). Therefore, it can be concluded that the manipulation of the gender of the accommodation’s name was successful.
Results
To enhance the data structure, we applied a logarithmic transformation to the willingness-to-pay variable. In our regression model of all studies, we controlled for various factors, including participants’ gender, frequency of booking shared accommodation, age, income, profession, education level, and liking of the name. Notably, tourists’ gender served as a moderator in Study 3, rather than as a control variable.
The linear regression revealed that both feminine and masculine names were associated with higher willingness to pay compared to the gender-neutral name (β = 1.104, p < .001; β = .489, p < .001 respectively; Figure 2). This suggests that tourists prefer gendered names when making peer-to-peer accommodation bookings. Furthermore, the use of a feminine name had a larger positive effect on tourists’ willingness to pay than did the use of a masculine name (β = .556, p < .001). Thus, H1 received support.
The results of Study 2. (a) The influence of the names of accommodations (gendered vs. gender-neutral) on willingness to pay. (b) The influence of gendered names of accommodations (feminine vs. masculine) on perceived warmth/competence and willingness to pay. Note: The influence of the name gender on willingness to pay reflects the total effect.*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001, n.s. p>.05.
The mediation test employed PROCESS Model 4 to examine whether perceived warmth and competence mediate the relationship between a name’s gender and willingness to pay. A feminine name had a positive association with perceived warmth (β = 2.586, p < .001), while showing a negative association with perceived competence (β = −2.846, p < .001). Perceived warmth positively influenced tourists’ willingness to pay (β = .194, p < .001), whereas the influence of perceived competence on willingness to pay was found to be insignificant (β = .049, p = .148). The mediating effect of warmth was confirmed (β = .501, 95% CI [.278, .755]), but the mediating effect of competence was deemed insignificant (β = −.141, 95% CI [−.307, .016]). Therefore, hypothesis H2a received support while H2b did not.
Discussion
The findings suggest that gendered names can lead to more willingness to pay for peer-to-peer accommodations compared to a gender-neutral name. Further, when encountering gendered names, tourists seem to refer to gender stereotypes. Consequently, they perceive accommodations with feminine names as warmer (though potentially less competent) than those with masculine names, which we refer to as the “gendered name effect”—a form of “name heuristic bias”. Moreover, considering that warmth has greater value than competence in the context of home-sharing (A. J. Cuddy et al., 2007; A. J. C. Cuddy et al., 2011; Mascaro & Sperber, 2009), tourists are willing to pay higher prices for accommodations with feminine names. However, it remains unclear whether the gendered name effect persists when female and male tourists are separately analyzed.
Study 3: Influence of Tourists’ Gender on the Name Heuristic Bias
Procedure
Study 3 examined the moderating role of tourists’ gender in the relationship between the gender of the accommodation’s name and their willingness to pay (H3). We employed a 2 (name gender: feminine or masculine) × 2 (tourists’ gender: female or male) design. A total of 356 participants recruited through the Credamo platform were randomly presented with either a feminine or masculine name (Appendix 2): Haitang Residence and Jianxi Residence, respectively. The male and female participants were separately analyzed. Similar to Study 2, participants completed manipulation tests for gender of the name as well as measures assessing liking of the name, warmth (competence), and willingness to pay (Appendix 3). Finally, they provided demographic information, as in Study 2. An attention check was administered in random order (Appendix 3). After excluding three participants who failed the attention test, we had 352 valid responses (see Appendix 4).
Manipulation Check
The manipulation of the name’s gender was successful, as evidenced by the significantly higher perceived femininity of Haitang Residence compared to Jianxi Residence (M_Haitang = 6.08, M_Jianxi = 3.55, F(1,351) = 569.022, p < .001). Additionally, the perceived masculinity of Jianxi Residence was significantly higher than that of Haitang Residence (M_Haitang = 2.94, M_Jianxi = 5.20, F(1,328) = 265.265, p < .001).
Results
Mediation tests revealed a significant positive total effect of the name’s gender (feminine vs. masculine) on willingness to pay (β = .450, p < .001), providing support for H1. Utilizing PROCESS Model 4, we observed that the name’s gender (feminine vs. masculine) positively influenced perceived warmth (β = 2.393, p < .001), while negatively influencing competence (β = −1.611, p = .000). Perceived warmth demonstrated a significant positive impact on willingness to pay (β = .290, p < .001), whereas perceived competence did not (β = .014, p = .522). The mediating effect of warmth was found to be significant (β = .695, 95% CI [.564, .829]), while the mediating effect of competence lacked support (β = −.023, 95% CI [−.116, .068]). Therefore, again, H2a was strongly supported and H2b was rejected.
Female tourists were willing to pay higher prices for accommodations with feminine names (M_feminine = 6.28, M_masculine = 5.40, F(1,176) = 254.696, p < .001), while male tourists tend would pay similar prices for accommodations with names of either gender (M_feminine = 5.63, M_masculine = 5.54, F(1,174) = 1.652, p = .201), in partial support of H3a. The findings from Process Model 8 revealed that tourists’ gender did not significantly moderate the impact of the name’s gender on perceived warmth (β = .205, p = .261) and perceived competence (β = .107, p = .602). This suggests that both female and male tourists perceive accommodations with feminine names as warmer and less competent than that with masculine names. Therefore, H3b was rejected.
Discussion
The results demonstrated the robustness of the gendered name effect among both female and male tourists. They have consistent evaluations of the accommodations despite having different gendered names. However, female tourists exhibit a higher willingness to pay for accommodations with feminine names compared to masculine names, while male tourists demonstrate uniform willingness to pay for both genders of names. Male tourists tend to select accommodations with masculine names in order to align with their self-identity based on self-congruity theory. However, within the home-sharing platform, individuals of both genders tend to prioritize warmth, which is associated with feminine names. Consequently, these conflicting effects may cancel each other out and result in male tourists having no clear preference for either masculine or feminine names, though they prefer gendered names over neutral names. While Studies 1 to 3 demonstrated biases related to names when the gendered names of the accommodations were the only available information, it remains unclear how additional information impacts these evaluations.
Study 4: The Host’s Gender and the Name Heuristic Bias
Procedure
Study 4 investigated whether the gender of the host substantially changes tourists’ initial judgments based on the gender of the names of accommodations, using a 2 (name’s gender: feminine or masculine) × 2 (host’s gender: female or male) design. A total of 614 participants (50.2% female; 80.9% aged 21–40 years) were recruited through the Credamo platform and randomly assigned to six groups. Participants in all six groups were presented with either a feminine or a masculine name for the accommodation: Tianmeng Room and Songzhu Room, respectively. The host’s gender was not revealed to participants in groups 1 and 2. After completing the manipulation checks for the gender of the accommodation’s name, participants in groups 3 to 6 were informed about the gender of the host. Then all participants provided responses to items assessing their name preference, and perceived warmth (competence). Subsequently, they were asked to comprehensively evaluate the accommodation based on a single item (i.e., I believe the accommodation is: 1 = high warmth but low competence, 2 = low warmth but high competence, 3 = high warmth and high competence, 4 = low warmth and low competence, 5 = hard to determine). Finally, they provided willingness to pay and demographic information, as in Study 2. An attention check was randomly inserted into the sequence (see Appendix 3).
Manipulation Check
The perceived femininity of Tianmeng Room was significantly higher than that of Songzhu Room (M_Tianmeng = 5.70, M_Songzhu = 2.54, F(1,613) = 1500.815, p < .001), while the perceived masculinity of Tianmeng Room was significantly lower than that of Songzhu Room (M_Tianmeng = 3.16, M_Songzhu = 5.58, F(1,613) = 877.069, p < .001).
Results
The results (see Figure 3) indicated that, when other information was unavailable, the accommodation with a feminine name was perceived as warmer than that with a masculine name (M_ feminine = 5.34, M_masculine = 3.35, F(1,241) = 745.528, p < .001), but perceived as less competent than its counterpart (M_ feminine = 3.22, M_masculine = 5.31, F(1,241) = 777.094, p <= .001). Over 97% of participants perceived the accommodation with a feminine name as “high warmth but low competence,” while 95% of participants perceived the accommodation with a masculine name as “high competence but low warmth”.
The results of Study 4.
For the accommodation with a feminine name, after knowing that it was managed by a female host, the perceived warmth was significantly higher than before (M_initial warmth = 5.34, M_subsequent warmth = 5.92, F(1,213) = 56.193, p < .001), and the perceived competence was significantly lower than before, but not reversed (M_initial competence = 3.22, M_subsequent competence = 2.88, F(1,213) = 16.180, p < .001). Moreover, after being informed that the accommodation was managed by a male host, tourist significantly but not substantially decreased their rating of perceived warmth (M_initial warmth = 5.34, M_subsequent warmth = 4.49, F(1,213) = 67.141, p < .001), and significantly increased their rating of perceived competence (M_initial competence = 3.22, M_subsequent competence = 3.86, F(1,213) = 45.578, p < .001).
For the accommodation with a masculine name, after learning that it was managed by a female host, the initial perceived warmth significantly increased (M_initial warmth = 3.35, M_subsequent warmth = 3.58, F(1,213) = 6.580, p = .011), while the initial perceived competence significantly decreased but was not reversed (M_initial competence = 5.31, M_subsequent competence = 4.88, F(1,213) = 31.607, p < .001). Furthermore, after being informed that the accommodation was managed by a male host, the initial perceived warmth significantly decreased but was not reversed (M_initial warmth = 3.35, M_subsequent warmth = 2.64, F(1,213) = 76.906, p < .001), while the initial perceived competence significantly increased (M_initial competence = 5.31, M_subsequent competence = 5.72, F(1,213) = 32.362, p < .001).
Despite the significant variations in tourists’ perceptions of warmth and competence after becoming aware of the host’s gender, they consistently viewed the accommodation with a feminine name as warmer but less competent than that with a masculine name, even when both were managed by a female host (Warmth: M_feminine = 5.92, M_masculine = 3.58, F(1,185) = 594.905, p < .001; Competence: M_feminine = 2.88, M_masculine = 4.88, F(1,185) = 529.224, p < .001). Conversely, tourists perceived the accommodation with a masculine name as more competent but less warm than that with a feminine name, regardless of whether it was managed by a male or female host (Warmth: M_feminine = 4.49, M_masculine = 2.64, F(1,185) = 2146.337, p < .001; Competence: M_feminine = 3.86, M_masculine = 5.72, F(1,185) = 353.530, p < .001).
Furthermore, nearly all participants perceived the accommodation with a feminine name managed by a female host was as exhibiting “high warmth but low competence,” while over 78% of participants felt that the accommodation with a feminine name managed by a male host was “high warmth but low competence”. Additionally, an overwhelming majority of participants (approximately 97.5%) perceived the accommodation with a masculine name managed by a male host as exhibiting “high competence but low warmth”. Similarly, a significant proportion of participants (over 87.5%) believed that the accommodation with a masculine name managed by a female host also conveyed a perception of “high competence but low warmth”.
The perception of tourists of accommodation with a feminine name was generally characterized as “high warmth but low competence,” while the accommodation with a masculine name was perceived as “high competence but low warmth,” regardless of whether they were informed about the gender of the host. As a result, Hypothesis 4 was rejected. While both Hypotheses 4a and 4b were supported statistically, but the change was not substantial, and certainly the initial perceptions of warmth and competence were not reversed.
The results of Model 4 revealed the following: (1) before knowing the host’s gender, perceived warmth significantly increased willingness to pay (β = .389, p < .001), while perceived competence did not (β = .001, p = .983); (2) after learning the host’s gender, perceived warmth remained positively linked to willingness to pay (β = .219, p < .001), whereas perceived competence did not (β = −.024, p = .356).
Discussion
In Study 4, our findings indicated that the gender of the host does not substantially counteract the perception of “high warmth but low competence” for the accommodation with a feminine name or the perception of “high competence but low warmth” for the accommodation with a masculine name. However, it is noteworthy that the presence of a female host enhances perceived warmth and reduces perceived competence of the accommodation, while management by a male host increases perceived competence and decreases perceived warmth. Nevertheless, we can infer that the host’s gender alone is not sufficient to reverse judgments based on the gendered names of accommodations regarding warmth and competence. Therefore, tourists’ judgments based on gender stereotypes are primarily shaped by their expectations of the accommodation’s gender rather than the host’s gender.
Study 5: Online Reviews and the Name Heuristic Bias
Pretest
The pretest aimed to identify the hedonic and utilitarian attributes of accommodation. Seven significant attributes were gathered from home-sharing platforms: decoration style, entertainments (such as comics and home theaters), location, check-in convenience, cleanliness, safety, and basic amenities (beds and toilets). One hundred participants were briefed on the definitions of hedonic and utilitarian attributes before they categorized each of the mentioned seven attributes as either “hedonic”, “as utilitarian as it is hedonic”, or “utilitarian”. To mitigate any bias from attribute importance, participants also rated the importance of each attribute on a scale from 1 (highly unimportant) to 7 (highly important). Additionally, participants provided demographic information.
Over 91% of participants classified decoration style and entertainment as hedonic attributes, while location, check-in convenience, cleanliness, safety, and basic amenities were labeled as utilitarian attributes. An ANOVA test indicated that decoration style, location, entertainments, and check-in convenience were perceived as equally important. Consequently, to address the potential confounding impact of attribute importance, these four attributes were selected as manipulation stimuli: decoration style and entertainment as hedonic attributes, and location and check-in convenience as utilitarian attributes.
Main Experiment
To examine H5, a 2 (the name’s gender: feminine or masculine) × 2 (ambivalent reviews: hedonic-advantage or utilitarian-advantage) design was employed. A total of 624 participants were recruited and assigned to six groups. Participants in groups 1 (N = 122) and 2 were presented with the accommodation named Xiaohe (feminine name) or Lingfeng (masculine name), respectively, without being exposed to an ambivalent review. Subsequently, they completed the manipulation check for gender of the accommodation’s name. Participants in groups 3 to 6, each comprising 95 individuals, were presented with the same accommodation names as groups 1 and 2 and completed the manipulation checks for gendered names. Subsequently, these participants read either hedonic-advantage reviews or utilitarian-advantage reviews. Those in the hedonic-advantage condition read a review in which the positivity of hedonic attributes exceeded that of utilitarian attributes, while participants in the utilitarian-advantage condition read a review in which the positivity of utilitarian attributes outweighed that of hedonic attributes (see Appendix 3). Participants were then given definitions of hedonic and utilitarian attributes, and they categorized each of decoration style, entertainment options, location, and check-in convenience as: (1) primarily utilitarian attributes; or (2) equally balanced between utility and hedonism; or (3) predominantly hedonic attributes.
All participants then proceeded to evaluate their liking of the name of the accommodation and its perceived warmth and competence. Subsequently, similar to Study 4, they were asked to comprehensively evaluate the accommodation based on a single item (i.e., I believe the accommodation is: 1 = high warmth but low competence, 2 = low warmth but high competence, 3 = high warmth and high competence, 4 = low warmth and low competence, 5 = hard to determine). Then, they reported their willingness to pay (Appendix 3).
The data from groups 1 and 2 were considered as indicators of initial warmth/competence and initial willingness to pay, whereas the data from groups 3 to 6 were utilized for subsequent judgments. Participants were then asked to provide demographic information using the same metrics as in Study 2. A simple attention test was randomly administered (Appendix 3). All participants successfully passed the attention check, and so no exclusions were required.
Manipulation Checks
The participants unanimously perceived Xiaohe as having a more feminine ambiance compared to Lingfeng (M_Xiaohe = 5.91, M_Lingfeng = 2.93, F(1,623) = 1610.032, p < .001). Conversely, they considered Lingfeng to be more masculine than Xiaohe (M_Xiaohe = 2.69, M_Lingfeng = 5.98, F(1,623) = 2064.486, p < .001). Additionally, participants successfully differentiated between hedonic and utilitarian attributes: over 95% identified decoration style and entertainment as hedonic attributes, while all participants recognized location and check-in convenience as utilitarian attributes. Therefore, the manipulation of name gender and ambivalent reviews was deemed effective.
Results
When the ambivalent reviews were unavailable (see Figure 4), the accommodation with a feminine name was perceived as warmer than that with a masculine name (M_feminine = 5.40, M_masculine = 3.41, F(1,243) = 558.301, p < .001), but was perceived as less competent than that with a masculine name (M_feminine = 3.22, M_masculine = 5.31, F(1,243) = 479.165, p < .001). Over 94% of participants perceived the accommodation with a feminine name as displaying “high warmth but low competence”. Conversely, approximately 90% of participants perceived the accommodation with a masculine name as exhibiting “high competence but low warmth”.
The results of study 5.
For the accommodation with a feminine name, hedonic-advantage reviews had a positive impact on tourists’ perceived warmth (M_initial warmth = 5.40, M_subsequent warmth = 5.84, F(1,216) = 34.109, p < .001), while decreasing perceived competence (M_initial competence = 3.22, M_subsequent competence = 2.84, F(1,216) = 10.244, p = .002). Utilitarian-advantage reviews led to a decrease in perceived warmth (M_initial warmth = 5.40, M_subsequent warmth = 4.89, F(1,216) = 59.488, p < .001) and an increase in perceived competence (M_initial competence = 3.17, M_subsequent competence = 3.73, F(1,216) = 36.179, p < .001).
For the accommodation with a masculine name, utilitarian-advantage reviews resulted in a decrease in perceived warmth (M_initial warmth = 3.41, M_subsequent warmth = 2.40, F(1,216) = 146.892, p < .001) and an increase in perceived competence (M_initial competence = 5.31, M_subsequent competence = 5.85, F(1,216) = 40.450, p < .001). Hedonic-advantage reviews increased tourists’ perceived warmth (M_initial warmth = 3.41, M_subsequent warmth = 4.07, F(1,216) = 68.321, p < .001) and decreased perceived competence (M_initial competence = 5.31, M_subsequent competence = 4.56, F(1,216) = 96.602, p < .001).
However, despite the significant variations in tourists’ perceptions of warmth and competence after reading the ambivalent reviews, tourists consistently viewed the accommodation with a feminine name as warmer but less competent than that with a masculine name, when presented with hedonic-advantage reviews (Warmth: M_feminine = 5.84, M_masculine = 4.07, F(1,189) = 717.239, p < .001; Competence: M_feminine = 2.84, M_masculine = 4.56, F(1,189) = 354.076, p < .001). Likewise, tourists consistently perceived the accommodation with a masculine name as more competent but less warm than that with a feminine name, after reading the utilitarian-advantage reviews (Warmth: M_feminine = 4.89, M_masculine = 2.40, F(1,189) = 1518.373, p < .001; Competence: M_feminine = 3.73, M_masculine = 5.85, F(1,189) = 868.541, p < .001).
Additionally, after reading the hedonic-advantage reviews, the vast majority of participants perceived the accommodation with a feminine name as exhibiting “high warmth but low competence”, whereas after reading the utilitarian-advantage reviews, 85% of participants perceived the accommodation with a feminine name as displaying “high warmth but low competence”. When presented with a masculine name and a hedonic-advantage review, 71.3% of participants perceived the accommodation as exhibiting “high competence but low warmth”; whereas in the case of a masculine name and a utilitarian-advantage review, all participants (100%) regarded the accommodation as demonstrating “high competence but low warmth”. Therefore, H5 was rejected, and both H5a and H5b were supported.
The results of Process Model 4 revealed the following: (1) Prior to reading the ambivalent reviews, perceived warmth was positively associated with willingness to pay (β = .269, p < .001), while perceived competence was not (β = −.055, p = .110); (2) After reading the ambivalent reviews, perceived warmth continued to show a positive relationship with willingness to pay (β = .303, p < .001), whereas perceived competence did not (β = −.027, p = .267).
Discussion
The results from Study 5 indicated that peers’ ambivalent reviews were ineffective in altering the initial perceptions of “high warmth but low competence” linked to the accommodation with a feminine name, or the initial perceptions of “high competence but low warmth” associated with the accommodation with a masculine name. However, hedonic-advantage reviews did enhance perceived warmth and diminish perceived competence. Utilitarian-advantage reviews increased perceived competence and decreased perceived warmth. Nevertheless, in conclusion, peers’ ambivalent reviews had insufficient impact to reverse the initial judgments of warmth and competence biased by gendered names of accommodation.
Summary and Conclusion
Main Findings
The five studies collectively validate our assumption regarding the name heuristic bias with regard to rental properties in the complex, uncertain, multi-source environment of peer-to-peer accommodation. The detailed findings are presented in Table 2, while their correlation with the heuristic bias theory is illustrated in Figure 5. Names can bias individual judgements, which is hardly reversible in the tourism context. In the context of peer-to-peer accommodation, tourists prioritize warmth over competence, leading them to be willing to pay higher prices for accommodations with feminine names. Additionally, gendered names of rental properties activate gender stereotypes that are used by tourists in evaluating prospective accommodation. This results in tourists perceiving rental properties with feminine names as warmer and those with masculine names as more competent. Furthermore, despite being presented with additional information, tourists do not change their initial judgments and attitudes influenced by the gendered names. This suggests that the gendered name bias has a strong effect in shaping tourists’ evaluations and attitudes.
Summary of Conclusions.
The theoretical conclusion of the findings.
Focusing on the tourism context, this study advances our understanding of judgment heuristics under conditions of uncertainty, and Figure 6 illustrates the theory of evolutionary heuristic bias. When faced with the task of judging accommodations on the basis of the gender of its name (the first piece of relevant information assessed), to decide whether to make a higher payment or not, individuals employ three heuristic processes. First, according to the original theory of heuristic bias, if the initial information contains cues related to representative knowledge (such as gender cues that activate gender stereotypes here), representative heuristics are used. Probability, frequency, sequence, correlation, and consistency can all activate these heuristics. These biases arise from inappropriately applying representativeness in solving the current task. Second, if the initial information contains cues related to an individual’s available experience directly related to the world, availability heuristics are used. Availability experience is filtered based on its weight (familiarity, salience, and recency) and effectiveness. In some cases, even without directly relevant experience, rational imagination derived from accessible information or even illusory correlations can activate this process. The presence of available experience itself contributes to biases in judgment. Alternatively, thirdly, an initial value can be deliberately established to bias judgment, leading individuals to rely on conjecture (such as task distribution, and subjective estimation of regularity) for their judgments. The aforementioned three heuristics are all used to process the first piece of information received by individuals. In complex and uncertain environments (such as sharing accommodation platforms), abundant external information can also be referred to, and potentially may reverse or reinforce initial judgments. The name heuristic bias is evidently robust and exerts a substantial impact on individual judgment and business operations if subsequent information fails to reverse the initial evaluations; otherwise, it is seen to be a weak bias.
The evolutionary heuristic bias theory.
Theoretical Contributions
We have made several contributions to the literature. Firstly, the boundaries of the heuristic bias theory have been expanded, as we incorporate external information as additional adjustments rather than solely focusing on a single piece of information. In traditional heuristic bias theory, individuals form judgments based on an initial point (Mussweiler & Strack, 1999; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). This is applicable to simplified scenarios that do not involve alterations of external information (Adomavicius et al., 2013; Chang et al., 2019). In the complex and uncertain environment of real life, particularly in the context of sharing accommodation, tourists are constantly exposed to a plethora of multi-source cues. With each new piece of information, there may be some degree of modification in tourists’ judgment regarding the product. If the initial judgment can be reversed, then the name heuristic bias applies only to simple scenarios. Conversely, if the initial judgment cannot be substantially altered, then the heuristic biases remain strong in complex environments. This study suggests that a robust gendered name effect exists within the realm of accommodation. More specifically, additional information such as peers’ ambivalent reviews and the host’s gender does not have the ability to reverse tourists’ perception of warmth and competence based on gender cues in the name of the accommodation, though it can alter it to a moderate degree. Tourists tend to perceive accommodations with feminine names as being warmer, while those with masculine names are seen as more competent, whether before or after the tourist is exposed to new information.
Secondly, we contribute to the literature on the naming of tourism products by deepening the understanding of how naming cues can influence tourists’ attitudes through biased evaluations and by introducing a novel factor. During the process of making an online purchase, tourists typically begin by retrieving the names of accommodations and subsequently proceed to explore additional information such as peer reviews and the host’s gender. Numerous studies have focused on examining the impact of this supplementary information on tourist behavior. However, it remains unclear whether and how naming cues can influence tourists’ attitudes by biasing their evaluations of accommodation, as well as whether subsequent information (specifically peer reviews and the host’s gender) may modify these attitudes. The judgment purely on the basis of the names of accommodations distinguishes itself from that on the basis of a manufacturing product and brand names. In tourism consumption, tourists desire more than just the fundamental tangible function; they seek authenticity and social interaction. When visiting unfamiliar cities, tourists often perceive greater threats and uncertainties compared to regular consumers. Moreover, accommodations typically come at higher prices than retail products. The unique context of tourism enables us to contribute to the acceleration of research on the naming of tourism products and provide a naming strategy for high-priced tourism products.
Additionally, we contribute to the literature on the naming of tourism products by introducing a new factor. The influence of gendered names on individuals’ evaluations of other human beings is well documented (Leslie et al., 2015; MacNell et al., 2014; Moss-Racusin et al., 2012). However, the expansion of this effect to non-human entities has been rarely explored. Only Pogacar et al. (2021) have demonstrated that gendered names of brands can affect consumers’ attitudes toward those brands. We are among the first to investigate the effects of gendered names in accommodations and how additional information can revise initial evaluations.
Thirdly, we introduce the novel concept of hedonic-advantage and utilitarian-advantage online reviews posted by consumers. Previous studies focus on peers’ positive or negative reviews (Park & Nicolau, 2015; Phillips et al., 2016), while disregarding the ambivalent nature of reviews. Accommodations possess both hedonic and utilitarian attributes that cater to tourists’ emotional and functional needs, respectively. Tourists may leave reviews praising the hedonic (utilitarian) aspects while criticizing the utilitarian (hedonic) aspects of accommodation. These ambivalent reviews have the potential to moderate readers’ judgments of accommodation, but they do not much change the initial bias stemming from the gender of the names of accommodations.
Finally, our study underscores that warmth is a more influential attribute for accommodations than competence. While it may be rational to prioritize competence over warmth when making travel decisions, especially in the post-COVID-19 era, when safety and reassurance are paramount (Kim et al., 2021), we argue that individuals who place a high emphasis on public hygiene should consider refraining from frequent traveling or choose hotels instead of rental properties. This is because hotels typically offer more competent, professional, and secure services. Tourists who opt for peer-to-peer accommodations over hotels often prioritize factors such as engaging with locals and creating a homely atmosphere rather than excessive demands for hygiene standards. Within the scope of our study of peer-to-peer accommodation, tourists tend to value warmth more than competence.
Managerial Implications
Our results are generated from experimental situations; in order to assess their applicability in the real-world peer-to-peer listings, we conducted data mining research, as depicted in Figure 7 (see Appendix 5 for details). The findings reveal that approximately 2.27% of peer-to-peer accommodations actually employ gendered names in practice, while 9.54% of reviews are ambivalent reviews. Hence, our cutting-edge findings possess the potential to drive innovation in industry practices. We recommend the comprehensive utilization of name gender as an innovative strategy to enhance revenue. Traditionally, an increase in prices is typically accompanied by a decrease in demand (traditional price elasticity). However, we propose a novel approach (utilizing gendered names) for hosts to raise prices without compromising consumer demand. Our findings reveal that female tourists exhibit a willingness to pay higher prices for accommodations with feminine names, while male tourists are will to pay similar amounts for accommodations associated with either gender. Consequently, hosts can leverage feminine names to support price increases. By incorporating words that convey feminine attributes within the names of accommodations, hosts have the opportunity to enhance their revenues.
Mining the web (peer-to-peer rental platforms) for gendered names.
We also recommend that hosts enhance the hedonic attributes of the accommodations by providing additional entertainment facilities and ensuring prompt and enthusiastic responses to tourists’ needs. These actions will result in more peer reviews highlighting the hedonic attributes of the accommodations, thereby enhancing tourists’ perceptions of warmth and their willingness to pay. Our conclusions are based on prevalent gender stereotypes in many cultures, which associate women with warmth and men with competence. However, as feminism rises and women’s empowerment increases, gender differences and stereotypes may gradually diminish.
Future Research Directions
Firstly, our study focused on gender cues inherent in names, but photographs and descriptions of accommodations may also contain gender cues. Future research could leverage machine learning techniques to extract gender cues from the multimodal information, which would allow an investigation of the effects of different gender cues on tourists’ evaluations. Secondly, the influence of the gender of a name might interact with the positioning of the accommodations. While the hosts of some accommodations strive to create a warm and cozy ambiance, others may prioritize a more formal, business-oriented atmosphere. Consequently, feminine names may be more appropriate for accommodations that offer warm and cozy experiences, while masculine names may better align with business-style accommodations. Further research could explore the interaction between the gender of the names and accommodations positioning. Thirdly, the gendered name effect may have implications beyond accommodation, and could extend to restaurants and tourist attractions. For example, the Four Ladies Mountain in Sichuan, China, possesses a distinctly feminine name, while Tai Mountain has a more masculine designation. Research could investigate whether the gendered name effect applies to other forms of tourism.
Furthermore, gender constitutes a crucial aspect of our research. The present study exclusively focuses on tourists who align with their sex. Individuals who identify as transgender may hold distinct beliefs regarding their gender identity, potentially introducing confounding variables that could impact our findings. Studies could explore how individuals who identify as transgender respond to gendered names in the context of accommodation.
Additionally, this study delves into the phenomenon of gendered names within the Chinese cultural context and gathers data from participants in China. Given the disparities in culture, particularly with regard to linguistic nuances, the presentation of gendered names may vary across different languages. For instance, the inclusion or omission of the possessive with an English brand name (e.g., Smith’s or Smith, respectively) can yield significant difference (or biases) in consumer preferences (Khamitov & Puzakova, 2022), whereas its impact is less pronounced in the Chinese linguistic context.
According to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory (Hofstede, 2011), cultural masculinity and femininity vary across countries, potentially introducing bias into research conclusions. Based on the cultural dimensions report (available on the Hofstede Insights website), China has a masculinity score of 66, significantly higher than Russia’s score of 36 and lower than Japan’s score of 95. This suggests that individuals in Japan place a greater emphasis on competence compared to those in China, potentially leading them to show a stronger inclination toward paying higher prices for accommodations associated with masculine names. Future research could categorize participants from different countries based on these scores and further explore how cultural masculinity and femininity influence tourists’ perceptions of accommodations with gendered names.
Supplemental Material
sj-docx-1-jtr-10.1177_00472875251323512 – Supplemental material for Name Heuristic Bias
Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-jtr-10.1177_00472875251323512 for Name Heuristic Bias by Kai-Ni Xue, Hui Li and Lan-Fei Gao in Journal of Travel Research
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The research was partially supported by the Major Project in Philosophy and Social Science Research from Ministry of Education of China (No. 23JZD014), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 42371186), the Project from Ministry of Science and Technology of China (No. G2023125002L), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 63243163).
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