Merging Oblivion Meditation: A Daoist method facilitating nondual experience through cosmic integration

Apophatic meditation

In Daoist meditation practice, there is a method of achieving union with the Dao through the loss of self. According to the description of “Sitting in Oblivion” in Chapter 6 of the Zhuangzi,

I let my limbs and physical structure fall away, do away with perception and intellect, separate myself from body-form and let go of all knowledge, thus joining Great Pervasion. This is what I mean by “sitting in oblivion.” (English Translation by Livia Kohn [2010, p. 7])

(墮枝體，黜聰明，離形去知，同於大通，此謂坐忘。)

These descriptions outline a Daoist meditation practice that involves achieving oblivion of bodily sensations, visual and auditory perceptions, and the abandonment of all awareness in order to achieve the goal of union with the Dao (Roth, 2000, 2018). From Chapter 2 of the Zhuangzi: “Now I have lost myself (“今者吾喪我,” English Translation by Burton Watson [1968]).” It is also evident that practitioners must attain a state of self-loss to unite with the Dao. In Chapter 4 of the Zhuangzi, the concept of “Mind Fasting” is elaborated as follows:

Unify your will and don’t listen with your ears but listen with your mind. No, don’t listen with your mind, but listen with your qi. Listening stops with the ears, the mind stops with matching [perception], but qi is empty and waits on all things. Dao gathers in emptiness alone. Emptiness is the fasting of the mind. (English Translation by Livia Kohn [2010, p. 25])

(若一志，无聽之以耳而聽之以心，无聽之以心而聽之以氣。聽止於耳，心止於符。氣也者，虚而待物者也。唯道集虚。虚者，心齋也。)

“Mind Fasting” is also a practice that reduces mental input, utilizing the flow of qi (vital energy) instead of ordinary perception (Kohn, 2010). As described in Chapter 22 of the Zhuangzi,

Human life is gathered ch’i (qi). Gather ch’i (qi), and that’s life. Disperse it, and that’s death. (English Translation by Sam Hamill and J. P. Seaton [1999, p. 122])

(人之生，氣之聚也；聚則為生，散則為死。)

And in Chapter 18 of the Zhuangzi:

Somewhere there in the vast imperceptible there was a change, and she had ch’i (qi); then the ch’i (qi) changed, and she had form; the form changed, and she had life. (English Translation by Sam Hamill and J. P. Seaton [1999, p. 97])

(雜乎芒芴之間，變而有氣，氣變而有形，形變而有生。)

Daoism holds that humans are formed by the gathering of qi. In “Mind Fasting” practice, practitioners must achieve a state of dispersed qi to attain awareness through this energy. They must also discard their bodily and mental selves to reach a dispersed state of qi, making “Mind Fasting” a form of apophatic meditation. Practices like “Sitting in Oblivion” represent approaches that minimize mental input, discard perceptions, and ultimately lead to a loss of self-awareness. As such, they are classified as forms of apophatic meditation. Apophatic meditation primarily involves emptying the content of consciousness to unite with the Dao (Roth, 2019). Its main characteristics are contentless, non-conceptual, and nondual (Komjathy, 2013).

Dahl et al. (2015) categorized meditation practices into three types: attentional, constructive, and deconstructive, with nondual-oriented meditation methods classified under the deconstructive category. These practices aim to induce a shift in experience, in which the cognitive structures of self/other and subject/object no longer dominate the mode of awareness. They often emphasize relinquishing efforts to control, direct, or alter the mind, while deconstructing the reified sense of an “observer” entity perceived as separate from the objects of awareness. Examples of nondual-oriented meditation practices include Mahamudra in Tibetan Buddhism and Shikantaza in Chan (禪) Buddhism (Dahl et al., 2015). Based on the definition of nondual-oriented practices, Daoist apophatic meditation methods can also be classified within this category.

With later developments, the practice of “Sitting in Oblivion” is now commonly described as “the loss of self and conscious mentation” or “the dropping of conceptions” (Kohn, 2010). However, consciously letting go of one’s sensations and thoughts can be particularly challenging for beginners. As Dostoevsky (1863/1985, trans. FitzLyon, p. 62) famously remarked in Winter Notes on Summer Impressions, “Try and set yourself the problem of not thinking about a polar bear and you will see that the damned animal will be constantly in your thoughts.” This underscores the difficulty of adapting “Sitting in Oblivion” for use in modern psychological meditation training. When beginners are instructed to forget something, they may instead become fixated on precisely those things they are supposed to forget.

The practices of nondual-oriented meditation methods, beyond just those of “Sitting in Oblivion,” also present significant challenges. For example, in Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of Mahamudra also faces the paradox that correct practice requires maintaining present-moment awareness without judgment. However, beginners often need to evaluate their present state, which can lead to conceptualization (Dunne, 2013). Due to the higher difficulty of practice, the participants in empirical studies on nondual-oriented meditation methods are predominantly experienced meditators (Josipovic, 2014; Josipovic et al., 2012). Therefore, the question arises: can there be a nondual-oriented meditation method that is effective for beginners with no meditation experience or familiarity with various contemplative philosophies? Daoist visualization-based meditation practices might address this need.

Ingestion of Qi, visualization and imagination, internal alchemy

“Ingestion of Qi” is a Daoist meditation method that involves absorbing the vital energy of the heavens and earth and integrating it into the body as part of the energy system (Komjathy, 2019). One method of “Ingestion of Qi” is to ingest vital energy (Qi) from the five directions, each corresponding to one of the five elements and their associated colors (e.g. the east is wood and green). The primary process of “Ingestion of Qi” includes facing the associated direction and visualizing the Qi as ordinary mist, gradually imagining it as an orb of light. It is then visualized shrinking into a sprout, which is swallowed and directed to the corresponding organ (Komjathy, 2019; Robinet, 1989). In addition to absorbing Qi from the five directions, vital energy from the sun and moon can also be absorbed.

According to the “Highest Explanation to the Five Talismans of the Numinous Treasure (DZ 388; Taishang lingbao wufuxu 太上靈寶五符序),” for example, absorbing lunar energy involves:

Get up at midnight and visualize a white energy floating around in your kidneys. Circulate it around the whole body until it reaches the head, then lead it down again into the feet. This method of becoming one with nature is easy to understand but difficult to practice. (English Translation by Toshiaki Yamada [1989, p. 119])

(常以夜半，思腎間白氣，周行身中，上至腦戶，下至兩足心。自然之道，易致難行。)

Close your eyes and visualize the white of the moon. A yellow energy will appear before your eyes. Make this enter your mouth and swallow it thrice seven times. Thereafter rub your torso to send it down into the cinnabar field where it will stay. (English Translation by Toshiaki Yamada [1989, p. 120])

(因暝目自念，月白黃精氣，來在目前，入口中，嚥之三七而止，以手摩送之，下至丹田中止。)

“Ingestion of Qi” is often practiced in conjunction with “Guiding and Pulling (Daoyin).” “Guiding and Pulling (Daoyin)” refers to a form of health-preserving exercise that combines breathing with movements imitating animals, in which “dao (導)” denotes the regulation of vital energy (qi) through guiding its flow within the body, and “yin (引)” refers to stretching and mobilizing the body and joints through physical movements (Kohn, 2008). For example, the Essay on the Essential Meaning of the Ingestion of Breath (DZ 830; Fuqi jingyi lun 服氣精義論) describes,

If you have an aching or sore head, loosen the hair and comb it with vigor for several hundred strokes, then shake the head to the left and right several ten times. Next, inhale deeply, place the hands on the neck and hold tight, then lift the head up, pressing against the hands. Also, visualize the qi as it flows into your brain, then let it push all wayward energies out through the top of the head and other body openings, allowing them to dissipate and disperse. Following this, release the hands, move the qi evenly through the entire body, and repeat the exercise. Once you feel sweat erupting on the head and notice that the ailing area becomes open and permeable, you have reached your goal. (English Translation by Livia Kohn [2008, pp. 150–151])

(若在頭中，當散髮，梳頭皮數百下，左右搖頭數十過，乃吸氣，訖，以兩手指於項上急攀之，以頭向上力拒之，仍存氣向上入腦，於頂髮諸孔衝出散去，一極訖，放手通氣，更為之，以覺頭頸汗出，痛處寬暢為候。)

This description demonstrates that the practice of Ingestion of Qi in combination with Daoyin is not a mere respiratory exercise; rather, it regulates the flow of qi through the integrated coordination of breath, bodily movements, and mental focus, ultimately producing therapeutic and health-promoting effects.

“Visualization and Imagination” is another meditation method in Daoism. In this practice, practitioners are instructed to visualize the Northern Dipper and Daoist divinities, embedding them safely within the practitioner’s own body (Kohn, 1989, 1991; Komjathy, 2019). A Daoist perspective on the body holds that it serves as the residence of the gods, suggesting that these deities reside within each person. However, if they are not actively visualized, their power within the body will gradually decline. Conversely, regular practice of “Visualization and Imagination” can contribute to longevity (Kohn, 1989, p. 144).

“Internal Alchemy” represents one of the most important modes of Daoist cultivation. Literally meaning “inner elixir” or “inner cinnabar,” it employs the imagery and technical vocabulary of external alchemy while transforming them into an inward process. The practice aims to refine and transmute body and mind so as to elevate ordinary corporeal existence into a form capable of transcending death (Komjathy, 2019). Because of its arcane terminology, highly systematized structure, and profound reliance on Daoist cosmology and religious faith, Internal Alchemy does not readily transform into methods of psychological training.

In Daoist cultivation, perceiving qi does not necessarily take the form of visualization; it may manifest as the direct experience of breathing and bodily sensation, or as an intentional interaction with deities, qi, and other external forces. In the psychological context, however, it is more appropriate to interpret such practices in terms of “visualization,” as this allows for their conceptual transformation into psychological frameworks and their subsequent operationalization in research. Accordingly, “Ingestion of Qi” and “Visualization and Imagination” may be regarded as meditative practices that lend themselves more readily to psychological operationalization as visualization. Initially, these practices involve the visualization of both subjective and objective aspects: the subjective aspect refers to the practitioner’s own body, whereas the objective aspects include elements such as qi and deities. Practitioners then imagine the objective aspects merging into their body, thereby dissolving the sense of objectivity in the experience through this integration. Ultimately, attention is directed toward the self, facilitating a transition from duality to nonduality. Thus, these two methods can be regarded as examples of the psychology-oriented subject-only visualization-based approach. Apophatic meditation actively seeks union with the Dao, whereas the psychology-oriented subject-only visualization-based approach focuses on integrating the Dao and its associated symbols with the self.

In the practice of “Ingestion of Qi,” practitioners visualize energy and draw it into their body. This method of visualizing energy is also common in other meditation practices. For instance, in the Tibetan Buddhist practice of Tonglen, practitioners imagine suffering and happiness as two kinds of gas: inhaling the gas of others’ suffering and exhaling the gas of happiness to cultivate compassion (Rinpoche, 2002). Similarly, in loving-kindness meditation (LKM), practitioners may visualize the force or energy of loving-kindness sent to others in the form of light (Sujiva, 2007).

However, the psychologization of “Ingestion of Qi” presents certain challenges. First, if beginners lack familiarity with Daoism, they may struggle to comprehend “qi” as a form of cosmic energy. Participants are likely to interpret “qi” as air or sunlight, which seems disconnected from the idea of union with the Dao. Similar issues arise in the psychologization of “Visualization and Imagination.” Without an understanding of Daoist deities, participants may find it difficult to associate these practices with the concept of merging with the Dao. In summary, both methods require a foundational knowledge of Daoism, making them unsuitable for psychologization and subsequent use by meditation beginners.

Daoist Inner Observation

If “Ingestion of Qi” and “Visualization and Imagination” can be transformed into the psychology-oriented subject-only visualization-based approach, then Daoist “Inner Observation” may be transformed into the psychology-oriented object-only visualization-based approach, which represents the approach most amenable to psychologization among those discussed in this article. To distinguish it from Buddhist methods of inner observation, it will be referred to as the “Daoist Inner Observation” in the following discussion. According to the Inner Observation (DZ 641; Taishang Laojun neiguan jing 太上老君內觀經),

Now observe that your body-self has arisen from emptiness and nonbeing in accordance with karmic conditioning and opportune encounters. An accumulation of essence and an assemblance of qi, a coming down of florescence and a descent of spirit—when all these come together, one receives life. Patterned on Heaven and symbolizing Earth, inhaling yin and exhaling yang, you share in the five phases and go along with the four seasons. The eyes are the sun and the moon. The hair is the stars and the planets. The eyebrows are the flowery canopy [Cassiopeia]. The head is Mount Kunlun. An array of towers and palaces keeps essence and spirit at peace. (English Translation by Livia Kohn [2010, p. 182])

(諦觀此身，從虛無中來。因緣運會，積精聚氣，乘業降神，和合受生，法天像地，含陰吐陽，分錯五行，以應四時。眼為日月，髮為星辰，眉為華蓋，頭為崑崙，布列宮闕，安置精神。)

In practice, “Daoist Inner Observation” requires practitioners to perceive their bodily parts as components of the cosmic landscape, imagining, for instance, that their eyes represent the sun and moon and their hair the stars. This process involves directly visualizing one’s body as part of the cosmic landscape and merging it with the universe. The cosmic landscape here is a concrete representation of the Dao. It is important to note that while Mount Kunlun exists as a physical location, in Daoism, it is symbolically interpreted as the residence of deities. Thus, Mount Kunlun and the palaces mentioned in the scripture are abstract representations of the cosmic landscape rather than natural features. One Daoist perspective on the body conceptualizes it as an immortal universe. Practitioners realize the Dao by transforming their body identity from person to physis, and from ego to cosmos (Kohn, 1991). Thus, visualizing one’s body as part of the cosmic landscape in order to merge with it is essentially a means of dissolving the self and uniting with the Dao. Unlike apophatic meditation, which negates internal sensations and thoughts to achieve self-dissolution, “Daoist Inner Observation” directs attention outward toward external objects. In this practice, practitioners ultimately transform themselves into cosmic entities such as stars. When merging their body with the cosmic landscape, they must visualize cosmic elements. This process shifts attention from the subjective to the objective aspect of experience, dissolving the sense of self and achieving a transition from duality to nonduality.

In psychology, meditation methods that involve merging with natural landscapes also exist. For instance, Van Gordon et al. (2018) propose a meditation approach that involves visualizing oneself as a natural landscape, such as a mountain. In addition to mountains, Van Gordon et al. (2018) discuss other suitable natural landscapes for visualization, including the sky, clouds, and lakes. Kathirasan and Rai (2023) extend this idea, suggesting that trees and lakes can also serve as appropriate visualization objects. Similarly, Kabat-Zinn (2023) introduces mountain and lake meditations, providing specific guided instructions. In mountain meditation, participants are encouraged to visualize themselves as a mountain, while lake meditation involves visualizing themselves as a lake.

However, unlike “Daoist Inner Observation,” which emphasizes nondual integration, psychological meditation practices involving merging with natural landscapes focus more on cultivating qualities associated with these landscapes through visualization (Kabat-Zinn, 2023; Van Gordon et al., 2018). For example, mountains are characterized by stability, stillness, and rootedness, unaffected by external changes, while lakes represent calmness, acceptance, and inclusivity. Through merging with mountains and lakes, participants can develop these qualities to some extent. This differs from the purpose of “Daoist Inner Observation,” which emphasizes nondual integration. However, psychological meditation practices that involve merging with natural landscapes can be integrated into a process within “Daoist Inner Observation.” In the psychologization of “Daoist Inner Observation,” participants can substitute natural landscapes such as mountains or lakes with cosmic landscapes like stars or galaxies in their visualization. Although this psychological meditation method does not explicitly emphasize nondual integration with natural landscapes, it still maintains a strong sense of nonduality. When participants imagine merging with mountains or lakes, they also dissolve the subjective aspect of their experience. Thus, the process of visualizing and merging with natural landscapes can serve as an initial step in “Daoist Inner Observation.” Given that people are generally more familiar with natural landscapes in daily life, visualizing and merging with these may be relatively easier. Once participants are proficient in visualizing and merging with natural landscapes, they can transition to visualizing and merging with cosmic landscapes.

The practice of Merging Oblivion Meditation

Based on the analysis above, it is evident that “Daoist Inner Observation” is particularly suitable for psychologization and practice by meditation beginners. Other methods, however, present certain challenges for psychologization. For instance, “Sitting in Oblivion,” as an apophatic meditation, requires participants to actively reduce mental input, discard sensory perceptions, and ultimately dissolve self-awareness. These practices are particularly challenging for novices in meditation. Could the integration of “Daoist Inner Observation” with “Sitting in Oblivion” provide a potential approach to adapting “Sitting in Oblivion” into a psychological training method suitable for beginners with no prior meditation experience or understanding of contemplative philosophies? For the purposes of this study, this integrated method is temporarily referred to as “Merging Oblivion Meditation.” The specific implementation design of the Merging Oblivion Meditation proposed in this study is as follows: participants wear virtual reality (VR) equipment to immerse themselves in cosmic landscapes, such as galaxies. Throughout the process, they keep their eyes open to observe the cosmic environment. Following the sequence outlined in “Sitting in Oblivion,” participants first imagine their physical bodies gradually dissolving and merging with the galaxies, symbolizing the release of physical form. Next, they imagine their sensory perceptions dissolving and merging into the cosmic landscape, representing the cessation of perception. Finally, participants imagine their consciousness dissolving entirely and merging with the galaxies, marking the abandonment of self and knowledge. The ultimate stage, “joining Great Pervasion,” is interpreted as the culmination of these steps, embodying an active process of uniting with the Dao.

In the practice of meditation, participants’ attention is consistently directed toward external objects rather than the self as the subject. Thus, the integration of “Daoist Inner Observation” with “Sitting in Oblivion” exemplifies the object-only visualization-based approach. Participants do not eliminate subjective aspect of experiences through the negation of sensory perceptions; instead, they actively dissolve such experiences by directing their attention to cosmic landscapes. In other words, participants naturally relinquish self-related experiences during the process of imagining their merging with the cosmic landscapes. In some psychological studies on meditation, visualization often involves imagining a situation (Hao et al., 2022, 2024). In Merging Oblivion Meditation, however, the primary task of participants is not to mentally construct a cosmic landscape but to imagine the process of merging with it. Asking participants to construct the cosmic landscapes themselves may place excessive demands on their cognitive resources and pose challenges due to a lack of material for imagining such landscapes. Therefore, presenting cosmic landscapes, such as galaxies, throughout the meditation may be a more effective approach. In addition, previous psychological studies have employed VR technology to facilitate meditation (Cinalioglu et al., 2023; Lee & Kang, 2020; Navarro-Haro et al., 2017; Salminen et al., 2024). Using VR to view cosmic landscapes can minimize distractions from the real world, enabling participants to fully immerse themselves in the cosmic environment and enhance their ability to imagine merging with it. Yaden et al. (2016) found that astronauts observing Earth from space frequently report self-transcendent experiences, supporting the use of cosmic landscapes as material for meditative merging.

The first step in the procedure involves participants imagining their bodies gradually dissolving and merging with the cosmic landscape presented through VR. At this point, their attention is directed toward the cosmic environment, potentially allowing them to release bodily sensations. The second step, which involves sensory perception, presents a greater challenge because participants continue to view the cosmic landscape through VR visuals, receiving continuous visual stimuli throughout the process. This step may appear not to negate sensory perception, but in reality, it achieves this through a different means. Participants need to imagine themselves as part of the cosmic landscape, observing another part of it, rather than perceiving it as an external entity through their senses as individuals. In doing so, they conceptually relinquish their sensory perception as individuals. As part of the cosmic landscape, participants can also use sensory perception to observe the landscape itself, which places specific demands on the presented cosmic landscape. The cosmic landscape should possess infinite characteristics to enable self-observation. Standalone planets may not be ideal for this merging process; galaxies, with their infinite qualities, provide a more suitable cosmic landscape. Because galaxies inherently possess infinite characteristics, participants, as part of these cosmic entities, can imagine observing themselves by observing the cosmos as a whole. In the third step, participants need to imagine their consciousness gradually dissolving and merging with the cosmic landscape. Similarly, while their consciousness still exists, they imagine it becoming part of the cosmic consciousness. In summary, while sensory perception and consciousness persist, through the process of merging with the cosmic landscape, these aspects are integrated into the cosmic experience, with individual sensory perception and consciousness fading away.

The effects of Merging Oblivion Meditation

The distinctive meditative operations of Merging Oblivion Meditation arise from Daoism’s unique conception of the body—as an immortal universe. This vision of the body fundamentally shapes both the operational procedures and psychological effects of Daoist meditation, setting it apart from the dominant meditation systems rooted in Buddhism. For instance, in Buddhist meditation, asubha-bhāvanā (contemplation of the impure) involves visualizing the body as a decomposing corpse in order to dissolve attachment to the physical form. In contrast, Merging Oblivion Meditation seeks to dissolve the boundaries of the body altogether, facilitating a sense of oneness with the Dao. This shift in focus suggests that Merging Oblivion Meditation may engage distinct mechanisms that facilitate the arising of nondual experiences. Merging Oblivion Meditation aims to achieve a nondual experience by eliminating the subjective aspect of experience. Unlike FAM and OMM, Merging Oblivion Meditation involves the active process of directing attention toward merging with an external object, thereby suppressing the subjective and self-related aspects of experience. In contrast, FAM and OMM focus attention on the objective, external aspects of sensory experience by emphasizing the momentary nature of sensory input. Therefore, in terms of nonduality, Merging Oblivion Meditation may have more pronounced effects, potentially providing more effective solutions for addressing self-related issues.

Nondual experiences can regulate emotions by alleviating egocentric perceptions, thereby fostering a more open mind and body (Lynch & Troy, 2021). This aligns with the annihilational component of self-transcendent experiences, which are associated with benefits gained through reduced excessive self-focus (Yaden et al., 2017). Previous research has identified hyperactivity in certain regions of the default mode network (DMN) among individuals with depression, indicating disrupted self-referential thinking in depressive states (Sheline et al., 2009). Heightened connectivity in DMN regions among individuals with greater depression and anxiety has been linked to persistent ruminative and anxiety-related thoughts, which allocate excessive cognitive resources to self-referential processes while limiting resources available for externally oriented processing (Coutinho et al., 2016; Harvey et al., 2005). Mindfulness meditation training has been shown to downregulate DMN activity (Brewer et al., 2011; Garrison et al., 2015), likely due to its ability to reduce self-referential processing and mind-wandering (Brewer et al., 2011). In future studies, reduced DMN activity could serve as a neural indicator of the efficacy of Merging Oblivion Meditation in mitigating self-referential processes.

The relational component of self-transcendent experiences allows participants to perceive inclusivity within a social context and generate connections through overlaps of self with others, thereby bringing benefits (Yaden et al., 2017). However, in Merging Oblivion Meditation, the relational component typically relates to the cosmic landscape, so the benefits of Merging Oblivion Meditation are not an enhancement of social connectedness. In psychological approaches involving merging with natural landscapes, meditation methods can cultivate qualities associated with those natural landscapes through visualization (Kabat-Zinn, 2023; Van Gordon et al., 2018). Therefore, imagining merging with the cosmic landscape might also foster the development of qualities associated with these cosmic landscapes, such as inclusiveness and openness symbolized by the vastness of galaxies or the serene silence of the universe. The greater psychological distance from human society in the vastness of the cosmos may cultivate a more objective perspective in practitioners. While achieving a nondual experience remains the primary aim of Merging Oblivion Meditation, the form of merging with the cosmos may also foster these qualities in participants. In summary, these potential effects of Merging Oblivion Meditation warrant further empirical investigation.