Abstract
The literature on Robert Agnew’s general strain theory (GST) has grown considerably over the past three decades so that the theory is considered one of the main micro perspectives on crime and deviance. Its broad-based conception of strain or stress along with its applicability to a range of behaviors make it particularly useful. But the majority of research using GST has focused on traditional criminal behaviors such as violence, property crimes, and illegal drug use. Much of the research has used either juvenile or young adult samples. While the GST literature considering specific demographic characteristics, gender or race/ethnicity, has grown, the literature has not typically taken a broader-based look at standing on multiple characteristics.
Pamela Black’s book Minorities and Deviance: Coping Strategies of the Power-Poor contributes to this literature by addressing several of these areas simultaneously. It focuses broadly on deviance in ways that go far beyond the majority of the literature, examining behaviors that, in excess, could be considered deviant. Black assesses literature and analyzes data related to ten such behaviors: self-harm, body modification, eating disorders, hoarding, video game addiction, gambling, pornography and cybersex addiction, casual sex, cross-dressing, and over-the-counter drug abuse. I was surprised with the inclusion of cross-dressing, but Black offers a nuanced analysis recognizing the widely varying reasons that individuals may cross-dress. The conception of minority that Black employs is also much broader than prior work in emphasizing those who possess less power in society, including gender minorities (women), racial and ethnic minorities, social class minorities (lower class, lower education), age minorities (over 65), and romantic partnership minorities (single/not married). Black also mentions that this same conception can be extended to other characteristics, such as other gender minorities (transgender), sexual orientation minorities (LGBQ), religious minorities, and disabled minorities.
After situating the unique focus of the study and summarizing theoretical perspectives on crime and deviance and the approach of GST in the first section of the book, Black focuses the second section on covering an extensive range of literature on the ten types of deviance, with a chapter devoted to each. She assesses these research studies for the relationship between different types of strain/stress and each type of deviance. In addition, she examines evidence for the relationship between minority status, broadly construed, and each type of deviance. There is good evidence that several types of strain, but particularly the presentation of negative stimuli, are related to these deviant behaviors. Very few previous research studies on these different types of behavior considered some type of minority status, and the few that did offered conflicting evidence. Black clearly demonstrates that GST offers a potentially viable explanation for these different types of deviance and that it is necessary to consider how minority status is related to these types of deviance but may moderate the effect of different strains on deviance.
The third and last section of the book focuses on Black’s original data collection and analysis. As has become more common recently, Black analyzes data collected through an online survey that draws on the national pool of Survey Monkey users (final n=300). The resulting sample is majority white (80 percent), is more than half female (52.6 percent), and has a broad range of adult ages (30.8 percent aged 60 and older). Participation in some form of deviance is quite common, with the majority of individuals playing video games (only some to excess) and buying or keeping things that they do not need (only some in excess to signal hoarding), while far fewer engaged in things like self-harm and disordered eating. However, while minorities often had a higher prevalence for several types of deviance, most of the comparisons were not significant. It is possible that significance might have been achieved with a larger sample size.
Black continues by examining the relationship between several types of strain (powerlessness, money stress, health stress, work stress, family stress, and friend stress) and deviance and whether minority status moderates these relationships. In these analyses, racial minority status interacted with several types of strain (powerlessness, money stress, work stress) to increase the risk for several types of deviance (self-harm, body modification, gambling, over-the-counter drug use, and cross-dressing). Minority status for gender, age, and relationship status also interacted with some types of strain to increase the risk for several types of deviance. The most consistent relationship was the interaction between different types of minority status and several types of strain to particularly increase the risk for self-harm. Black also examined the cumulative effects of multiple types of strain on the total number of deviant behaviors and the intensity of deviant behaviors. In both cases the clustering of strain led to an increased number and intensity of deviant behaviors across the different types of minority status. In terms of moderation, the primary significant relationship was the interaction between powerlessness and racial minority status on both the number and intensity of deviant behaviors.
Black does further analysis on majority group status and notes that majority group status interacted with interpersonal strains (family and friend strain), while minority group status interacted with strains that were more associated with self-efficacy (powerlessness, money, work stress). Because of the sheer number of different types of analyses in these final chapters, this part of the book is a bit cumbersome to get through. But the tables clearly present the results, and Black does a decent job of explaining the full range of results.
Overall, Black’s book offers a nice summary of the literature on strain, minority status, and the full range of deviant behaviors that are typically not covered in the literature. The broad conception of deviance and minority status is a key strength of this book. The original data collection presented by Black also offers some important contributions to the literature on general strain theory and the study of minority status and deviance more broadly. The book is clearly organized and fairly easy to read. It will be useful for graduate students and scholars interested in deviance, strain and stress, and minority status. It is also accessible enough for undergraduate students.