A National Survey of Undergraduate Psychology Curriculum in India: An Examination of Structure and Sequence

The success of the discipline of psychology begins with quality undergraduate training and a well-designed curriculum (Stoloff et al., 2010). However, faculty members often base their understanding of curriculum design and development on their own student experiences and on departmental or institutional offerings, which may overlook broader historical and national contexts (Perlman & McCann, 1999b). Systematic discussions about the curricular aspects of undergraduate psychology have a long history, especially in the United States. Psychology has repeatedly studied its undergraduate program's curricular structure and sequence over several decades (Messer et al., 1999; Perlman & McCann, 1999a). These efforts led to the development of several reports on undergraduate psychology education, such as the Cornell Conference report (Buxton et al., 1952), the Kulik report (Kulik, 1973), and the St. Mary's Conference Report (Brewer et al., 1993), which provided the basis for undergraduate psychology curricular structure and sequence across the United States. These reports advocate for a strong foundation in the psychology undergraduate curriculum, balancing natural and social science content within the psychology curriculum, sequencing course offerings to foster critical thinking and scientific understanding, and concluding with integrative experiences such as internships or research projects.

In India, psychology emerged as an academic discipline during the colonial period, with the establishment of the first psychology department at the University of Calcutta in 1916. Early curricula were influenced by Western models, emphasizing experimental psychology and laboratory-based methods (Dalal, 2011). This colonial inheritance shaped the discipline's identity in its formative years, privileging Western theories of mind and behavior while sidelining Indigenous perspectives. Following independence in 1947, psychology gradually expanded across universities in India, diversifying into applied domains such as clinical, educational, and industrial psychology.

These historical developments also exposed enduring tensions between inherited Western frameworks and the need for culturally grounded psychological knowledge, setting the stage for contemporary decolonization efforts. In recent times, researchers have increasingly emphasized the need to decolonize psychology education in India by integrating Indigenous knowledge systems, culturally responsive pedagogy, and locally relevant research agendas (Dalal & Mishra, 2010). Efforts to indigenize psychology have drawn on ancient Indian philosophy and traditions such as Yoga, Vedanta, and Ayurveda, and while also engaging with contemporary social realities, including diversity, inequality, and mental health challenges. Although efforts towards decolonizing psychology, there remains a disproportionate influence of Western perspectives on psychology education in India (Sharma, 2024). Because of these historical developments and ongoing tensions, undergraduate curricula across India continue to reflect inconsistent sequencing.

Historically, researchers have examined the psychology curriculum with respect to the proportion of mandated courses, including required, core, track, and capstone courses (Stoloff et al., 2010). Walker et al. (1987) employed a structured, data-driven approach to curriculum development in the United States, involving surveys of alumni and employers, as well as a comparative analysis of peer institutions. They proposed a three-phase model for curriculum evaluation and revision, emphasizing the importance of a hierarchical curriculum that integrates the method of inquiry as a central objective. Their model is structured around four developmental areas: knowledge base, methodological skills, communication skills, and independent work. The curriculum is divided into four levels, corresponding to the 4 years of undergraduate study, with increasing complexity and integration of subdisciplines. Gillam (1994) conducted a study in Australia that discussed the dual identity of psychology as both a discipline and a profession, arguing for a strong core curriculum emphasizing scientific knowledge and research methods. Gillam criticized the trend toward elective-based curricula and the erosion of a standard knowledge base among graduates, advocating for a two-tier model where undergraduate education focuses on the discipline, followed by postgraduate professional training.

Messer (1997) examined curriculum descriptions of 42 undergraduate psychology programs in North Carolina and found that the modal curriculum requirements included a one-term introductory course, a one-term statistics course, a one-term experimental design course, and an integrative experience. In another study, Messer et al. (1999) analyzed the catalogs of 292 universities and colleges in the United States, revealing that 96% of psychology programs offered a general degree, while 26% offered concentrations such as clinical psychology or developmental psychology, and 13% offered specialized degrees in areas like industrial/organizational psychology.

Perlman and McCann (1999a) examined the structure of undergraduate psychology programs across various types of institutions in the United States. The study included several variables, such as the number of psychology credits required for a major, structure, and the standard curricular models (traditional, hourglass, flexible, and thematic) used in undergraduate psychology programs. The study found that the majority of the departments followed a traditional or structural curricular model (Buxton et al., 1952; McGovern, 1993; McGovern et al., 1991) in which students start with a single semester introductory course, builds through core courses, and ends with a capstone experience (research project), followed by hourglass curriculum (McKeachie & Milholland, 1961) which starts with a full year introductory course and ends with a survey but allows for specialization in the middle. The flexible curriculum (McKeachie & Milholland, 1961) has no required common core, allowing students to design their major with faculty advising, meeting their educational goals. Finally, a thematic major curriculum begins with a survey course in the thematic subdiscipline (e.g., developmental or biological), followed by methods and specialized courses, laboratory courses within the thematic knowledge base, a senior capstone course, and electives. Perlman and McCann's (1999a) study provided a comprehensive overview of the state of undergraduate psychology curriculum.

Furthermore, Perlman and McCann (1999b) analyzed 400 college catalogs from four institutional types to identify the most frequently offered undergraduate psychology courses. They found a high degree of continuity in the curriculum, with 13 courses listed by Henry in 1938 still appearing in the top 30 in 1997. However, the study also identified changes in the curriculum, with some courses dropping out of the top 30 (e.g., motivation, educational psychology, and exceptional children).

Recently, APA's Principles for Quality Undergraduate Education in Psychology (APA, 2023a) recommended that the psychology departments and programs design their curriculum, provide a coherent, globally informed curriculum with learning goals and outcomes, and sequence courses to build on concepts from lower- to upper-level courses. Students who gain foundational knowledge and develop essential skills before being exposed to more advanced courses are better prepared to engage with complex concepts and respond effectively to challenges. Thus, students may benefit from taking introductory statistics and research methods courses early in the curriculum, as this will enable them to apply the concepts and skills acquired to evaluate the material more critically in advanced courses. Thus, the sequencing of courses is paramount, as Brewer et al. (1993) suggested, emphasizing that an integrative experience is critical to the curriculum. However, in recent years, educators have favored electives over a core curriculum, which complicates the promotion of strong foundational knowledge and identity in undergraduate psychology programs and makes postgraduate education more difficult due to the lack of assumed prior knowledge (Gillam, 1994). However, requiring prerequisite courses for advanced-level courses creates significant challenges if the curriculum is not sequenced correctly. Advanced courses can only be effectively taught when students have a common foundational knowledge base (Stoloff et al., 2010).

Recent years have seen renewed interest in skills and competencies among psychology graduates to effectively address issues related to human behavior, driven by evolving educational frameworks and employability demands. Hayes (1996) established this discourse by delineating transferable skills such as critical evaluation, problem-solving, and interpersonal awareness that extend beyond professional psychology into diverse careers. Building on this, Yorke and Knight (2003) and Knight (2004) emphasized employability attributes such as analytical thinking and teamwork, while Halonen et al. (2022) updated the APA guidelines to include scientific inquiry, ethical values, and communication as core undergraduate outcomes. As the field of psychology expands globally, it is crucial to establish internationally recognized skills and competencies to ensure the quality of psychology education (Papageorgi et al., 2024).

Recent calls for reform in undergraduate psychology education focus on psychological literacy, a unifying pedagogical framework that integrates discipline-specific knowledge, skills, and values to prepare graduates for addressing complex societal issues (Cranney et al., 2022; Morris et al., 2021). The urgency of this transformation was amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic, which highlighted psychology's critical role in combating misinformation, reducing social and economic disparities, alleviating psychological distress, and fostering resilience in an uncertain postpandemic workforce (Cranney et al., 2022). Decades of advocacy for change in psychology education (e.g., Miller, 1969; Halpern et al., 2010; Halpern & Dunn, 2021) emphasize the discipline's potential to promote well-being at the individual, group, and societal levels by fostering skills such as healthy relationships, critical reflexivity, and resilience. To advance this agenda, Cranney et al. (2022) proposed a comprehensive model of interconnected undergraduate psychology graduate capabilities, comprising core discipline-specific elements—psychological knowledge (including skills), research methods, and the application of knowledge across personal, professional, and community domains (encompassing local, national, and global contexts)—alongside generic, evidence-informed competencies: values and ethics, critical thinking, communication, and cultural responsiveness.

The globalization of psychology education necessitates harmonized frameworks to facilitate cross-national collaboration, curricular mobility, and shared competency standards. Nolan et al. (2025) advocate for aligning the APA's Project Assessment with international initiatives, such as the Bologna Process and EuroPsy guidelines, which prioritize curricular compatibility over rigid standardization. The Bologna Process, launched in 1999 and now spanning 48 European Higher Education Area countries, standardized three-cycle degree structure (bachelor's, master's, doctoral), credit systems (European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System), and quality assurance, incorporating employer and public input to boost employability and mobility (Bologna Declaration, 1999; Eurydice/European Commission/EACEA, 2020). EuroPsy complements this by setting competency benchmarks for psychologists across 24 nations, requiring a bachelor's and master's degree, plus supervised practice, to practice psychology, and influencing all students through ethical and professional standards (EFPA, 2017; Lunt et al., 2015). Globally, Bologna-inspired “Tuning” projects—such as Tuning Africa (2011–2018), ASEAN +3's mosaic harmonization, and Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC)-aligned reforms—illustrate efforts to harmonize curricula while respecting regional diversity (APAC, 2019; Dang, 2015; Eta et al., 2018). Such initiatives emphasize that U.S. psychology programs should adopt harmonized, competency-driven approaches to better prepare graduates for diverse careers and international opportunities.

The global imperative for standardized competencies is further reflected in the APA's Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major 3.0 (2023b), which Nolan et al. (2025) analyzed through an international lens. Compared to its predecessors, Guidelines 3.0 emphasizes inclusivity and global relevance, aligning with frameworks like the International Competences for Undergraduate Psychology (ICUP). Developed by Nolan et al. (2025), ICUP positions psychological literacy and global citizenship as central constructs, in contrast to the U.S.-centric focus of Guidelines 3.0. While both frameworks are aspirational, their convergence highlights the value of harmonized curricular practices in fostering skills critical for career success and societal impact. Such harmonization is particularly relevant for emerging educational systems, such as India's, which seek to align with global standards.

India's National Educational Policy (NEP)-2020 underscores the importance of an internationally relevant curriculum in sciences and social sciences, aiming for “internationalization at home.” To achieve this, the NEP-2020 introduced several reforms, such as developing a new Curriculum and Credit Framework for Undergraduate Programs (UGC, 2022), incorporating a flexible 4-year undergraduate program with multiple entry/exits, credit transfer, and lateral entry options. The policy allows for early exit with lower qualifications, with credits stored in the Academic Bank of Credits, and offers lateral entry options, enabling students to transfer from one institution to another. Although the NEP-2020 and the University Grants Commission (UGC)–Credit Framework for Undergraduate Programs-2022 proposed greater flexibility, the lack of standardized sequencing in Indian psychology programs complicates student mobility between universities. However, no national survey data exists on the curricular aspects of undergraduate psychology programs in India. This study is the first to collect national baseline data on the most frequently offered courses and their sequence within undergraduate psychology programs across Indian universities. The findings of this study will provide valuable insights to guide curricular development, ensuring alignment with international competency frameworks and supporting the objectives of NEP-2020 for enhanced employability and global relevance.

Method

Sample

The authors read 53 university catalogs for four university types: (a) Central Universities (centrally funded national institutions; n = 7), (b) State Universities (state-funded and governed; n = 10), (c) Deemed to be Universities (institutions granted university status by the UGC based on academic performance; n = 8), and (d) Private Universities (established and funded by private trusts or societies; n = 28). We sampled only universities with established psychology departments offering undergraduate psychology programs. Autonomous and affiliated colleges were excluded due to the unavailability of a comprehensive list of colleges under this category. These 53 universities were found to offer 55 psychology undergraduate programs in India (see Figure 1 for the sampling process). Two of the central universities were found to offer two undergraduate programs each, a BA and a BSc in psychology. All 55 programs were found to offer only 3-year undergraduate psychology programs.

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Figure 1.

PRISMA flowchart of university selection process.

Results

Courses Offered

Two researchers independently reviewed course offerings based on the titles and content descriptions. Courses were grouped into categories when their content was highly comparable. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consultation with a third researcher. We found several variations in the course titling. Table 1 shows the 25 most frequently offered course categories, which differ in title.

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Table 1.

Most Frequently Offered Courses for All Universities.

Course/Area Title	n	%
Research methods/statistics	55	100
Physiological psychology	55	100
Industrial/organizational	55	100
Counseling psychology	55	100
Social psychology	54	98
Developmental psychology	52	94
Introductory psychology	51	92
Practicum/experimental psychology	40	72
Positive psychology	36	65
Health psychology	33	60
Dissertation	31	56
Educational psychology	26	47
Community psychology	22	40
Personality psychology	22	40
Abnormal psychology	18	32
Environmental psychology	18	32
Cognitive psychology	16	29
Clinical psychology	16	29
Psychology of individual differences	15	27
Forensic psychology	13	23
Internship	13	23
Sport psychology	12	21
Cross-cultural psychology	10	18
History and systems of psychology	8	14
School psychology	4	7

Note. In the Indian undergraduate context, “dissertation” denotes a faculty-supervised empirical or theoretical research project, comparable to what is termed a “thesis” in U.S. undergraduate or master's programs.

The primary aim of this study was to describe the structure and sequence of the undergraduate psychology curriculum as it was offered in 2022 across universities in India. We found that universities in India offer 3-year undergraduate psychology programs under seven different nomenclatures. As indicated in Table 2, 45% of the programs were offered as BA Psychology (Honors), 20% as BA Psychology, and 11% of the programs offered both as BSc Psychology and BSc Psychology (Honors), 9% of the programs are offered as BA Applied Psychology (Honors), followed by BSc Applied Psychology (2%) and BSc Clinical Psychology (2%).

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Table 2.

Title of the Undergraduate Programs Offered.

Title of the Program	n	%
BA Psychology	11	20
BA Psychology (Honors)	25	45
BA Applied Psychology (Honors)	5	9
BSc Psychology	6	11
BSc Psychology (Honors)	6	11
BSc Applied Psychology	1	2
BSc Clinical Psychology	1	2

Although no single core set of courses exists for an undergraduate psychology curriculum, researchers have historically examined the curriculum in terms of the proportions of mandated courses, including required, core, track, and capstone courses (Stoloff et al., 2010). The required courses are Introduction to psychology, Statistics, and Research methods. Core courses are developmental Psychology, Social psychology, Personality psychology, Biopsychology/Physiological psychology, Cognitive psychology, Abnormal psychology, Cross-cultural psychology, and History and Systems of psychology. There are several track courses, such as the Clinical/Counseling psychology track, Industrial and Organizational psychology track, Forensic and Criminal Psychology track, Educational/School psychology track, and capstone courses (including Internships, Dissertations, and Seminar courses).

We found that 92% of all programs in our sample began with an introductory psychology course. In addition to introductory psychology, 31% of programs offer statistics and research methods in the first semester, and 22% of programs offer them in the second. About 22% of the programs offer biopsychology and the introductory psychology course in the first semester. Among the core courses, only physiological/biopsychology is offered in all programs we sampled, followed by social psychology (98%) and developmental psychology (94%).

Introductory Psychology

A one-semester, 6-credit-hour course with the lab was the introductory experience at 67% of the universities in our sample. A two-semester, 4-credit-hour course, with no formal lab, was the introductory experience at 33% of the universities in our sample. Four programs offered no introductory psychology course; these universities offered applied psychology and social psychology as introductory experiences. This variation in introductory course structures highlights the need for standardization in the delivery of foundational knowledge.

Research Methods and Statistics

Although 100% of the universities offered either research methods or statistics courses, the placement of these courses varies drastically. About 29% of the universities offered research methods and statistics in the first semester (n = 16), 20% in the second (n = 11), 27% in the third (n = 15), 18% in the fourth (n = 10), and 6% in the fifth (n = 2). A two-semester, 6-credit-hour course each semester was offered in 38% of the institutes in our sample.

Laboratory Courses

Laboratory courses were offered by 40 universities (72%). About 29% of the universities offered laboratory courses in experimental psychology (n = 16), and 67% of the universities offered two-semester general psychological practicum courses (n = 37). Two institutes offered psychological practicum courses throughout the six semesters (4%).

Core Courses

Though no single set of courses exists, conventionally, developmental psychology, social psychology, personality psychology, physiological/biopsychology, cognitive psychology, and abnormal psychology are considered core courses. These courses were expected to be taken by students, followed by introductory and statistics/research methods courses, before the track (applied and vocational) courses were introduced. We found that physiological/biopsychology was the only course experienced by the students 100% of the universities among the core courses, followed by social psychology (98%), developmental psychology (94%), personality psychology/theories of personality (40%), abnormal psychology (32%), cognitive psychology (29%), cross-cultural/multicultural psychology (18%), and history and systems of psychology (14%).

Popular Courses

As we noted earlier, there was substantial variation in the titles of undergraduate psychology courses. Irrespective of the name of the undergraduate psychology program, the most popular courses are the industrial/organizational psychology domain (organizational behavior, consumer psychology, human resource management) and counseling psychology. All students experienced these courses. Counseling psychology was offered as a required course in 46% of the universities in the second to the fourth semesters. The remaining 54% of the universities offered counseling as an elective course. Similarly, the industrial/organizational psychology domain was offered as a required course in 18% of the universities, starting as early as the second semester and continuing through the fourth semester. Eighty-two percent of universities offered this as an elective course. Other popular courses offered were positive psychology in 65% of the institutes, followed by health psychology (60%), educational psychology (47%), community psychology (40%), environmental psychology (32%), forensic psychology (23%), and sport psychology (21%).

Capstone Courses

Capstone experiences, such as dissertations and internships, are critical for fostering scientific understanding in undergraduate psychology programs by integrating theoretical knowledge with empirical and applied skills. Our analysis revealed that dissertations were required in 56% of the programs (n = 31), while internships were mandated in 14% (n = 8). Additionally, 9% of programs (n = 5) required both internships and dissertations. These experiences are essential for developing advanced empirical skills, such as designing research studies, analyzing data, and applying psychological principles to real-world contexts, which are foundational to the scientific identity of psychology (Stoloff et al., 2010). However, the limited prevalence of capstone courses—absent in 44% of programs—suggests a gap in opportunities for students to systematically synthesize and apply their learning. This variability in capstone offerings may hinder students’ ability to engage in critical thinking and hypothesis-driven inquiry, which are central to scientific understanding. To enhance the curriculum's alignment with scientific goals, we recommend that all programs incorporate mandatory capstone experiences, sequenced in the final semesters, to ensure students consolidate their methodological training (e.g., from early statistics and research methods courses) and core content knowledge into cohesive, evidence-based projects or practical applications.

Discussion

This study describes the course offerings and structure of undergraduate psychology curricula across universities in India. We followed the methodological procedure of Stoloff et al. (2010) to provide a national portrait of the educational experiences of undergraduate psychology students. This allowed us, to some extent, to make a direct comparison with existing curricular research in the United States, highlighting both convergences and divergences in curriculum structure and sequencing. We hope these findings will help departments develop curricula consistent with international standards, and that our results will provide a framework for future studies on curriculum design and development in India.

It is important to note that undergraduate psychology programs vary in duration and structure worldwide. Countries such as Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom typically offer 3-year undergraduate degrees, often followed by additional honors or postgraduate years of professional training (APAC, 2019; BPS, 2019). In contrast, the United States offers 4-year undergraduate degrees that allow for broader curricular scaffolding and integrated research experiences (APA, 2023b). In Europe, the Bologna Process has standardized a 3 + 2-year model (undergraduate + postgraduate) for psychology education (EFPA, 2017; Lunt et al., 2015). India has historically followed a 3-year structure, though the NEP-2020 now promotes a flexible 4-year undergraduate framework with multiple exit points (UGC, 2022). These structural differences influence the sequencing of curricula and the integration of research experiences.

The findings of this study must be interpreted within the broader global context of undergraduate psychology education, which varies significantly in its aims, structure, and regulatory frameworks (Cranney et al., 2025). For instance, the aims of undergraduate psychology programs range from providing a general/liberal arts education (e.g., the United States) to preprofessional training (e.g., Europe) to professional training (e.g., Brazil). Furthermore, the presence of a national psychology-specific quality regulatory agency, such as Australia's APAC, stands in stark contrast to contexts like India, where no such mandatory quality regulatory framework currently exists. The Rehabilitation Council of India regulates clinical psychologists as part of its broader mandate for rehabilitation professionals. The National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions oversees allied health professions, including some aspects of psychology. There is no dedicated national body exclusively for regulating the quality or standards of psychology as a profession. This variability means that a direct application of the international standards APA Guidelines 3.0 or ICUP is neither feasible nor appropriate. Instead, these frameworks should serve as a guide for developing competencies within India's undergraduate psychology education. Furthermore, our use of international frameworks warrants careful contextualization. We used these models not as prescriptive benchmarks against which Indian curricula should be judged as deficient, but as aspirational reference points that illuminate both convergences and divergences in curricular priorities.

This study found that virtually every undergraduate psychology student was required to take an introductory course and at least one statistics or research methods course. These results are in line with Stoloff et al. (2010). We firmly believe in the statement by Stoloff et al. (2010) that the introduction to psychology and one or more statistics and research methods must serve as the foundation for an undergraduate psychology major. However, in our sample, the placement of statistics and research methods varied dramatically from the first semester to the sixth semester. This might put students at a disadvantage as psychology is an empirical science that emphasizes the systematic observation, experimentation, and testing of hypotheses to guide scientific practices. Studying statistics and research methods early in their program would help students better understand the advanced concepts they will learn later.

The results of this study indicate that three courses are required in the programs we sampled: physiological/biopsychology, social psychology, and developmental psychology. Approximately 94% of all psychology undergraduate programs complete these courses. One noteworthy finding in our study is that, on average, only 23% of all psychology undergraduate programs complete the other internationally popular courses, including abnormal psychology, cognitive psychology, cross-cultural psychology, and history and systems of psychology. Another important finding is that personality psychology was required only in 40% of all programs. This finding contradicts the Stoloff et al. (2010) study, which found that it was required in 96% of all institutes.

We do not oppose course offerings in applied or vocational topics, such as industrial/organizational psychology, clinical/counseling, and forensic psychology. However, we stress that they should not replace students’ exposure to the core content areas of the field. For example, most of the programs in our sample offered clinical or counseling psychology courses before covering the theories of personality, personality psychology, and abnormal psychology. Given the increased recognition of multicultural competence skills in various employment settings, cross-cultural psychology has been integrated into the core of undergraduate psychology programs in the United States. Nevertheless, in India, only 18% of programs offered this course at the undergraduate level as an elective in the final semesters.

We acknowledge that students choose undergraduate psychology programs for a wide array of reasons, and we also believe in the importance of allowing undergraduates to take courses in their areas of interest (Stoloff et al., 2010). However, we believe that students of psychology will benefit from a well-structured psychology program, where students’ experience starts with an introductory psychology course, methodological courses such as basic statistics/research methods, and core courses such as developmental psychology, social psychology, personality psychology, biopsychology/physiological psychology, cognitive psychology, abnormal psychology, cross-cultural psychology, and history and systems of psychology in the first 2 years of undergraduate program, before the introduction of any track/vocational courses and integrative experiences to promote critical thinking and a deeper scientific understanding of psychology.

Consistent with previous studies (Perlman & McCann, 2005; Stoloff et al., 2010), our data indicate that capstone experiences are available at most institutions, with dissertations required at 56% and internship experiences at 23%. We recommend that all programs consider providing internship experiences to students before they select their track or specialization. These internship experiences may help students decide on their track or specialization courses in later semesters.

The NEP-2020's emphasis on flexibility and multiple exit points necessitates a more standardized foundational curriculum in the early semesters to facilitate student mobility between institutions. The current variability in course sequencing and the early introduction of applied courses pose challenges to this goal. A well-structured curriculum in the early semesters of their undergraduate experience assures common knowledge among psychology undergraduates nationwide. This not only helps students acquire foundational knowledge in the subject domain but also facilitates students’ free mobility from one university to another, as envisioned by the NEP-2020. Therefore, while alignment with international competency standards is a worthy goal, achieving it in India requires first establishing a national consensus on the primary aim of the undergraduate psychology degree and developing a robust accreditation system to support it.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

The present study was subject to several potential methodological weaknesses. The first limitation of this study is that the use of departmental websites to gather course offerings is restricted to 53 universities whose undergraduate psychology curricula were available online, representing less than half of the universities identified as offering undergraduate psychology programs in India. This reliance on publicly accessible data likely favors relatively better-resourced institutions and may underrepresent the curricular aspects of universities with limited digital infrastructure, raising the possibility that the structure and sequencing patterns reported here do not fully capture the national landscape, in particular, the exclusion of autonomous and affiliated colleges. This would be a fruitful area for further work. Consequently, the results are best viewed as a conservative baseline that calls for follow-up studies using multimodal data collection (e.g., gathering course offerings from the department heads and systematic inclusion of affiliated, autonomous colleges and institutions without an online presence) to examine whether the patterns observed here are replicated, amplified in less-resourced and college-level settings.

Second, as the first national baseline study of undergraduate psychology curricula in India, this study captures a snapshot of undergraduate psychology curricula across Indian universities, prioritizing a foundational mapping of course offerings and sequencing. This descriptive approach parallels foundational studies in other national contexts (Perlman & McCann, 1999b; Stoloff et al., 2010), which similarly prioritized establishing baseline data before advancing to inferential analyses of institutional or regional variation. While we did not employ inferential statistics to examine differences across university types or geographic regions, we view this as an important direction for subsequent research. Future studies could investigate whether curricular structures vary systematically by institutional characteristics, resources, or regions, thereby generating theoretical insights into the contextual forces shaping psychology education in India.

Third, the cross-sectional nature of our data provides only a static snapshot of undergraduate psychology curricula as they existed in 2022. This design precludes any analysis of curricular trends, whether course offerings are expanding or contracting, or whether sequencing is improving. Given that curricular reform is an ongoing process, understanding its trajectory is essential for informed pedagogical decision-making. We recommend that future studies replicate this investigation at regular intervals to establish trend data. Lastly, as noted in the methods section, we acknowledge that the course titles provide only a proxy for content, limiting inferences about enacted curricula.

Conclusion

Despite its limitations, the study offers critical insights into the structure and sequence of psychology programs in India. The findings highlighted that, to some extent, courses offered across universities in India aligned with international content trends. However, there is a significant gap in the sequencing and integration of these courses. The lack of a structured sequence that fosters critical thinking and promotes a scientific understanding of the discipline is evident. Applied courses are being introduced early in the undergraduate programs, potentially at the expense of foundational knowledge. Furthermore, the absence of integrative experiences such as internships (77%) and dissertations in approximately 50% of the programs indicates a need for reform. These integrative experiences are crucial for providing students with practical skills and preparing them for postgraduate education and professional careers.

We recommend that undergraduate psychology programs in India adopt a more structured approach, balancing foundational courses with applied topics and prioritizing the integration of practical experiences, such as internships and dissertations. Psychology educators in India should also aim to intentionally align their curricula with international competency models, such as the APA Guidelines 3.0 and the ICUP. This would enhance the quality of education and align with the goals of NEP-2020 to achieve “internationalization at home.” We believe that the findings of this study provide a baseline for future curricular reforms to enhance the quality of undergraduate psychology education in India.