Abstract
Community-based service-learning projects have demonstrated their effectiveness in helping students understand concepts in public service education through hands-on, experiential activities; however, little is known about the implementation of service-learning pedagogy in rural settings and its implications for public administration. This article employs a multiple case study approach to examine the application of service-learning graduate courses in public administration and public health. We observe two projects conducted in rural regions of the southeastern United States by analyzing data from student evaluations and reflections, as well as feedback from community partners. Findings indicated service-learning can help students develop professional skills that are directly applicable to real-world scenarios, deepen their understanding of community challenges in rural settings, and highlight the impact of their work on rural communities. Community partners in rural areas can benefit from increased access to student-driven services for organizations navigating resource constraints. We provide recommendations for effectively implementing service-learning projects in rural regions worldwide. The study contributes to the literature by employing an interdisciplinary public service lens to highlight the challenges and opportunities present for public administration students and community partners in rural areas and to explore how service-learning helps students acquire competencies in resource-constrained settings.
Introduction
Public administration is a field that focuses on strengthening and partnering with communities through research, praxis, and pedagogy. Service-learning methods in public administration classrooms provide the opportunity for current and future public service practitioners to gain hands-on experience in research design and analysis, civic engagement, and problem-solving in community settings (D’Agostino, 2008; Imperial et al., 2007). Through classroom projects with practical relevance, service-learning can foster a civic-minded perspective while teaching students how to directly apply the course material (Bryer 2014; Simon et al., 2013; Stout, 2013). Such practices align with the missions of many graduate public administration programs across the world—i.e., to provide students with valuable skills to strengthen and learn from communities in various public service contexts (Dicke et al., 2004). Thus, students can learn the course material while nurturing a connection to communities and enhancing public service motivation, an area where public administration programs internationally have faced challenges (Huang, 2024).
Service-learning courses have also been successfully utilized in public health education as a means to bridge academic learning with practical community engagement, demonstrating the usefulness of such community-based pedagogy across public service contexts. Similar to public administration, service-learning courses in public health settings allow students to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world health challenges while fostering civic responsibility and professional skill development (Cashman and Seifer, 2008; Gerber and Dolan, 2019; Gresh et al., 2021). Traditionally, service-learning in public health has been used to enhance student engagement, strengthen community-academic partnerships, and contribute to public health interventions, such as health education campaigns and disease prevention initiatives (Gregorio et al., 2008; Hodges and Videto, 2008; Rosenkranz, 2012). Documented successes include improved student competency in public health practice, increased cultural awareness, and distinct benefits for community partners (Housman et al., 2012; Sabo et al., 2015; Tar Lim et al., 2024). The integration of service-learning into public health curricula aligns with public administration objectives by promoting effective collaboration between academic institutions and community agencies. This alignment is particularly impactful in rural and underserved areas globally, where limited public resources and healthcare disparities present unique challenges and opportunities for service-learning initiatives.
Despite the purported benefits of service-learning, little is documented about its application in rural settings in public administration. As a field, public administration tends to focus heavily on urban areas to develop theory, sometimes considering rurality only as a non-urban reference category in a multivariate regression (Gabehart, 2023). Rural areas face significant challenges with regard to resources, infrastructure, employment, education, transportation, and healthcare, among others (Helpap, 2023; Mueller et al., 2021). What is more, universities play a vital role in rural communities as hubs of innovation and development (Elliott, 2018; Miller and Tuttle, 2007; Real et al., 2014). Yet public administration’s lack of focus on rurality creates gaps in knowledge of best practices (Gabehart, 2023), leading to pedagogical techniques that may be more applicable to urban areas and do not provide students with a comprehensive view of the public sector. There is a need to better understand how service-learning can be applied in rural public administrative settings across diverse national and regional contexts.
To address this gap, the current article employs a multiple case study approach to analyze the following service-learning courses: (1) Public Program Evaluation and (2) Social Epidemiology & Health Equity; these represent graduate courses in public administration and public health, respectively, during which students completed service-learning projects for community partners in rural areas of the southeastern United States. We ask the following research questions: What effect does service-learning have on student attitudes and competencies in public service education? What are the benefits and challenges to service-learning according to rural community partners? How can service-learning courses be designed to most effectively support student learning outcomes and skill development and to maximize benefits to community partners, especially in rural contexts? In short, we find service-learning is an effective tool for educators to equip public service students with skills directly applicable to real-world rural settings. While students benefit personally and professionally from service-learning projects as a means to bridge theory and practice, and community partners in rural areas benefit from services offered, challenges related to direct community engagement, the semester-long timeline, and aligning the goals of the project with those of the community partner may arise. Hence, successful service-learning projects in rural areas require building lasting partnerships, careful course design that aligns with both learning objectives and community partner needs, and tailoring approaches to the unique needs of rural catchments. The study thus contributes to the literature by providing an understanding of the challenges and opportunities present for public administration students and community partners in rural areas, with implications for education in the United States and abroad; an exploration of how service-learning contributes to various competencies in resource-constrained settings; and insights into service-learning from an interdisciplinary public service perspective to develop implications for public administration pedagogy.
Literature review
Service-learning as community-based pedagogy
Service-learning is defined as “a pedagogical approach that integrates formal curriculum with students’ active and meaningful community engagement regarding real-life issues” (Tiippana et al., 2024: 491). It has been designated as a high-impact practice with the ability to benefit various learning outcomes (Kilgo et al., 2015; Kuh, 2008). Projects utilizing this method of pedagogy may require students to provide services to the community through direct interactions between students and people/organizations or to provide services indirectly by involving students in research-related initiatives driven by community partners (Connor-Linton, 1995). Regardless of the magnitude of directness, the aim is to help students gain practical skills in their disciplines through experiential learning techniques that relate to the class material and benefit the community (Felten and Clayton, 2011).
Studies have shown service-learning can improve academic performance, help students develop a greater understanding of societal problems, and teach students how to apply course concepts to new situations (Fredericksen, 2000; Markus et al., 1993). In a systematic review of the literature, Compare and Albanesi (2023) found service-learning can encourage students to think critically about social justice, fostering an understanding of underserved communities and changing attitudes with regard to altruistic behavior. Given the goals of service-learning include making positive changes to communities by immersing students in community-focused projects, this type of pedagogy can enhance attitudes and behaviors related to civic engagement, as well as increase understanding about community problems (Camus et al., 2021; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2021). A sense of community belonging and social responsibility may result from involvement in service-learning projects (Coelho and Menezes, 2021; Compare and Albanesi, 2023), and on a personal level, such projects can lead to enhanced self-efficacy, critical thinking, and a sense of empowerment (Arinze et al., 2022; Gutzweiler et al., 2022; Huda et al., 2018). It should be noted, however, that positive outcomes are not guaranteed, and results are largely mixed (Imperial et al., 2007). Gray et al. (2000) found, for example, that although service-learning positively predicted enhancements in civic and interpersonal skills, it did not affect academic and career development and only modestly influenced civic participation. Similarly, Compare and Albanesi (2024) observed no statistically significant effect of service-learning on psychosocial variables related to social justice attitudes, cognitive empowerment, sense of community responsibility, and civic engagement. These outcomes are relevant to public administration, as they relate to academic competence and broader attitudes and beliefs about the communities administrators serve. The mixed findings highlight the importance of assessing service-learning across contexts.
In the public administration literature, studies have focused on beneficial outcomes for students and best practices with regard to service-learning course design. Students in public administrative service-learning courses work with the professor to assist a community partner with a community-driven task that applies concepts from the classroom to a real-world issue (Bryer, 2011; D’Agostino, 2008; Reinke, 2003). Courses are more valuable when the service-learning project is well connected to learning objectives, with sufficient faculty and student time investment and consistent feedback from community partners, professors, and students (Dicke et al., 2004; Imperial et al., 2007). When designed effectively, these projects can foster social capital and establish universities and public affairs programs as key members of the community (D’Agostino, 2008). Similarly, a meta-analysis in the public health literature revealed positive outcomes in satisfaction, problem-solving, and communication skills at the student level (Tar Lim et al., 2024), as well as achievement of foundational domains at the school accreditation level (Mason and Dunens, 2019). Central to all service-learning courses are critical reflections, which transform student learning from passive to active. Through structured reflections, such as discussions or essays, students critically examine their experiences in the context of the course content, connecting theory to practice (Bursaw et al., 2015). This process provides an opportunity for students to question their assumptions, recognize their biases, and further analyze complex real-world issues encountered in community settings (Stith et al., 2021; Van Winkle et al., 2018). On-going critical reflection throughout the service-learning project allows for deeper learning by giving students multiple opportunities to meaningfully connect theory to practice (Ash and Clayton, 2009). Integrating such reflection can facilitate the development of the knowledge, skills, and cognitive capacities needed for students to better understand and act upon complex social issues in the public sector (Eyler, 2002).
At the individual level, professors can help future and current public servants to master NASPAA’s core competencies by designing projects that allow students to learn by doing, become aware citizens, work on relevant issues, and effectuate change in the community (Lebovits and Bharath, 2019). Transforming theory into practice through engagement with community problems can help public affairs students better learn the material and prepare for government jobs while fostering a sense of citizenship, building connections, and bolstering students’ resumes through real-world experience (Bryer, 2014; Simon et al., 2013; Stout, 2013). The benefits of service-learning thus apply to both professional competence and public service values (Imperial and Prentice, 2022).
From an empirical standpoint, Reinke (2003) found the service-learning component of graduate MPA courses in Program Evaluation, Research Methods, and Quantitative Methods helped students to learn the material and connect theory to practice but results on civic engagement were not significant. Huang (2024) employed a quasi-experimental design to show that a service-learning course positively impacted public service motivation (PSM) while negatively affecting perceived problem-solving ability. Through a detailed discussion of a graduate-level public policy course and analysis of student feedback, Waldner et al. (2011) demonstrated how service-learning can facilitate an understanding of difficult topics such as social equity through policy analyses of health disparities for community partners. These findings highlight the need to understand the impact of service-learning models in the public sector, especially in local contexts wherein such techniques are understudied.
Service-learning’s impacts are meant to be reciprocal in that collaborations should benefit students and community partners (Imperial et al., 2007). Public organizations benefit from free or low-cost projects that offer novel insights and simultaneously help to advance the education and careers of students (Gerlach and Reinagel, 2016; Waldner et al., 2011). Public administration students—some of whom will advance in their careers to serve the communities where the service-learning takes place—can develop plans for the community, provide the community with new information and analyses, and inspire innovative thinking (Bryer, 2011). In addition to the scholarly tools students employ to solve community problems, community partners may benefit from the ideals of social justice and multiculturalism students bring to the relationship (Roschelle et al., 2000). As a field, public administration aims to improve the communities it serves and train current and future administrators to do the same, making these benefits integral to its mission.
Rural contexts in public administration
Rural areas face unique challenges in regard to healthcare, infrastructure, employment, and addiction, and in some cases, the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these issues (Mueller et al., 2021; Shah et al., 2020). Public service provision in these regions is hindered by revenue limitations and a lack of administrative, workforce, and management capacity (Helpap, 2023). According to Lobao and Kelly (2019), though counties tend to be the most important units of government for rural areas, remote rural counties provide the fewest services compared to other catchments. Disparities in public service provision are compounded by higher rates of distrust in government and lack of faith in government intervention in rural regions (Ulrich-Schad and Duncan, 2018).
It is important to note that rural communities are far from homogenous, with each one encompassing diverse communities with varying economic bases, demographic compositions, political cultures, and social norms (Rogers, 2019). Indeed, scholars have documented how socioeconomic conditions, including economic decline and government disinvestment, shape rural communities’ political attitudes and engagement with public institutions (Cramer, 2016; Hochschild, 2016). This variation across rural contexts provides a rich opportunity for student learning and exploration.
However, public administration and policy have devoted little attention to rural regions as unique jurisdictions with their own needs and belief systems that require specific consideration to better understand public service provision (Gabehart, 2023). Instead, as Gabehart (2023) noted, rurality is often treated as a reference category in a multivariable regression rather than examined thoroughly to develop concepts and theories specific to these catchment areas. Issues arise when policy formulation and implementation in rural areas are based on evidence from urban jurisdictions with little understanding of the unique context of rurality (Accordino, 2019; Brunet, 2015; Helpap, 2023). As Gabehart (2023) stated, “the focus on cities and urban centers and the inculcation of myths and misconceptions of ruralness have led to knowledge gaps and missed opportunities in scholarship and practice” (p. 484). These complex dynamics highlight the need to better understand public services in rural settings.
Such an endeavor requires a focus on the intersection of rurality, teaching, and learning. Local institutions—such as universities—often serve as centers for innovation and development in rural areas that play an important role in the community and lives of community members (Elliott, 2018; Miller and Tuttle, 2007; Real et al., 2014). Regarding students of higher education, rural residents are less likely to enroll in college and complete a college degree despite having more community social capital (Byun et al., 2012; Wells et al., 2019). Studies have called for locally anchored, place-based public services and policies that consider the perceived needs of a given community to provide effective, efficient, and sustainable solutions (Lata et al., 2024; Stout, 2013), which has also been mentioned in the context of pedagogy (Yemini et al., 2025). Hence, it is crucial to explore public affairs teaching techniques with the ability to benefit students and communities in rural areas.
Service-learning in rural settings
Service-learning courses across academic disciplines, especially in areas that lend themselves to interdisciplinary work, can be used to bridge the gap between theoretical frameworks and the on-the-ground realities of public service delivery in underserved, limited resource areas. Theories of social justice (Waldner et al., 2011), community development (Stoecker, 2014), and public policy (Bloom and Gascoigne, 2017) have been effectively applied in rural areas through service-learning course work, where students actively contributed to supporting community resilience while applying academic knowledge to real-world problems, ranging from substance use prevention and mental health services to emergency preparedness and health promotion campaigns. The integration of service-learning with public administration and public health coursework provides students with the unique opportunity to understand the interdisciplinary nature of public service and health issues (Culhane et al., 2018; St Hill and Julie Yazici, 2014). By working on projects that involve tangible skill sets such as rural community engagement and outreach, policy analysis, and program evaluation, students gain insight into how rural policies and initiatives are designed, implemented, and/or evaluated within the larger context of public service, which are marketable skills for their upcoming career.
Service-learning offers students the opportunity to engage in research and service that is not only academically enriching but also valuable to the rural communities they serve (Furco, 1996). Research and service in rural settings often produces insights that can improve public administration policies, enhance local public health initiatives, and strengthen social networks that are crucial to rural community health and well-being (Stoecker et al., 2016). These insights, had service-learning courses not uncovered them, could otherwise go unnoticed. Research, when performed in a service-learning setting, can foster a greater understanding of rural community dynamics (Tripon, 2024), as well as provide evidence-based recommendations for policy (Mink and Twill, 2022) or programmatic interventions (Schaber, 2010). These observations can then be used in other resource-limited rural areas to maximize public benefit of smaller programs at scale. Additionally, the integration of applied research in rural areas not only enhances community engagement but also cultivates civic responsibility among students.
Service-learning impacting health in rural areas has been the topic of several published studies, highlighting its direct impact on students and communities. For example, a study by Paulson (2018) highlighted that service-learning projects enable students to engage directly with underserved populations, fostering a deeper understanding of mental health disparities and community needs. Similarly, a ‘learn-by-doing’ service-learning approach in the Public Health Associate Program through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention revealed that such initiatives not only enhance trainees’ professional development but also significantly benefit host agencies by strengthening public health infrastructure in rural areas (Wigington et al., 2017). Research by Booth and Graves (2018) explored the implementation of service-learning initiatives with rural populations in global settings to foster cultural awareness among nursing students. The study revealed this initiative enhanced students’ awareness of global rural health issues, cultural differences, and health disparities, with continuous reflection facilitating such benefits. Hence, much like best practices in other service-learning settings (Ash and Clayton, 2009; Eyler, 2002; Stith et al., 2021; Van Winkle et al., 2018), critical reflection can be beneficial in rural regions. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that rural service-learning initiatives not only enrich students’ educational experiences but also strengthen limited health infrastructure and services in rural areas.
While much of the research on service-learning has concentrated on urban environments, rural areas offer a unique context to studying public service delivery. This paper seeks to fill this gap by demonstrating how service-learning can address the distinct challenges seen in rural communities, while also equipping students with the skills necessary to navigate the complexities of public administration and public health in these settings. Through the description of two interconnected disciplines’ service-learning coursework, this work can provide insight into how service-learning can be leveraged to develop sustainable, impactful solutions for complex challenges in rural communities, strengthening both academic outcomes and civic engagement.
Methods
We employed a multiple case study method to better understand two disparate approaches to the use of service-learning in rural areas. In the current article, we define a service-learning course as indirect if it does not involve direct interactions between students and community partners or members of the community and as direct if there is face-to-face contact with beneficiaries (Connor-Linton, 1995; Jenkins and Sheehey, 2022). Multiple case studies involve contrasting and comparing two or more distinct cases with the goal of comprehensively understanding how phenomena work across contexts (Stake, 2006). Careful case selection is crucial. Researchers should choose cases with sufficient variation for a cross-case analysis without losing the unique characteristics of each case but with enough similarities to illuminate phenomena (Adams et al., 2022). Such a selection should be based on the goals of the research (Stake, 2006). Hence, we analyze the following two courses: (1) Public Program Evaluation and (2) Social Epidemiology & Health Equity. Course 1 was taught in an MPA program in Fall 2024, while course 2 was taught in a Master of Public Health (MPH) program in Spring 2018. Both courses were held at the same university in the southeast United States, received a university service-learning designation, and completed service-learning projects in rural areas. However, they differ in their utilization of service-learning techniques, as well as in their disciplinary home and course content. The MPA course was chosen because of its focus on evaluation and analysis for a community partner in a rural area, giving students the opportunity to work with real-world data while providing service to the community. The public health course was selected due to its strong emphasis on service-learning in a rural area and its ability to provide students with hands-on experience in rural community health challenges alongside a public administrator. Additionally, the course covered key topics relevant to public administration and health logistics for ensuring equitable access to services, particularly in underserved populations.
Communities were selected during course development based on existing relationships established through prior projects and ongoing partnerships with the organizations. This familiarity with chosen community partners allowed for timely implementation of the service-learning course, since it was built upon established trust and mutual understanding of the community work conducted in the past. Both courses completed their service-learning projects in rural Georgia, U.S. Communities in the rural South face unique challenges related to employment, infrastructure, and healthcare (Farrigan, 2026; Miller and Vasan, 2021). The counties comprising the service-learning projects were characterized by increased poverty and unemployment relative to the rest of Georgia and the U.S. and ranked poorly on health outcomes (Georgia Rural Health, n d). Such socioeconomic conditions may shape the willingness and capacity of community groups to engage with universities, though this relationship was not assessed herein. Our overall goal was to compare cases across disciplines to demonstrate the benefits and challenges involved in implementing service-learning courses in rural areas to then make recommendations for public administration pedagogy. In addition, the comparison across time periods demonstrates the value of service-learning in rural catchments in both pre- and post-COVID-19 pandemic eras. Apart from the pandemic, variations in community partner capacity, student demographics, learning styles, and pedagogical norms may also be present, given the 6-year gap between courses, highlighting the importance of understanding how broader contextual factors affect service-learning.
The service-learning courses
The first service-learning course was the Public Program Evaluation course in an MPA program held in Fall 2024. The goals of the course included equipping students with the knowledge and competence to conduct evaluations, apply both quantitative and qualitative methods, address real community needs, and communicate evaluation findings to community partners. This is a required course in the MPA curriculum. It had a hybrid course design wherein class was held face-to-face once every 2 weeks. The service-learning project in the course consisted of an implementation evaluation for a community partner in a rural area roughly an hour away from the university. The partner was a collaborative agency that provides services to children and families in their community, representing an essential focal point that brings together various organizations and people in its rural region. The process began with a meeting between the professor and the community partner to discuss needs, goals, and a timeline. Based on this conversation, the professor tasked students with analyzing annual self-assessments provided by the community partner over the previous 5 years to evaluate the implementation of various services. Final reports included quantitative analyses of implementation scores, challenges to implementation, attendance rates, role fulfillment, and evidence-based programming, with open-ended responses on the self-assessments qualitatively analyzed to better understand barriers to implementation. In writing their reports, students were urged to consider how results from the evaluation could aid the rural community and to remain cognizant of the needs of the community partner and community members throughout. The professor then combined various parts of student reports to create one final report for the community partner.
Throughout the course of the semester, the professor kept open lines of communication with both the community partner and the students (Imperial et al., 2007). Several assignments that would become a part of students’ final reports were given to students throughout the course of the semester, with extensive feedback provided by the professor to allow students to refine sections of the report. Feedback was solicited from students throughout the semester to understand how the course could be improved, as well. Moreover, the professor communicated with the community partner to ensure the evaluation process aligned with their goals for the project. The project thus gave students the opportunity to analyze real-world data for an organization in a community partner-driven way and was classified as indirect service-learning (Connor-Linton, 1995; Jenkins and Sheehey, 2022). Given the community partner’s limited capacity for extensive interactions with students, this indirect design was driven by the needs of the community partner, a common practice in service-learning classrooms (Imperial et al., 2007). To enhance learning, critical reflection was employed via in-class discussions about the service-learning project and how it related to the course material. Students used this class time to reflect on how service-learning contributed to the achievement of learning goals, as well as to discuss any challenges faced. After completing the service-learning project, students were asked to write a critical reflection focused on connecting the practical experience to the class material, discussing the community project in the context of program evaluation concepts, benefits for the community partner, methodological strengths and limitations, real-world applications, and professional development.
The second service-learning course was the Social Epidemiology & Health Equity course in an MPH program held in Spring 2018, representing a more direct form of service learning due to students interacting with the community partner (Connor-Linton, 1995; Jenkins and Sheehey, 2022). This course was required in the MPH Epidemiology curriculum and included a service-learning project where students applied social epidemiology concepts to a real-world public health issue in a rural setting. The project was a collaboration with a local health district's Department of Public Health, and the students worked in groups to develop an evidence-based proposal for the planning, implementation, and evaluation of a drive-thru flu clinic program in two rural counties. Each student group addressed a specific objective within the proposal, which covered marketing, evaluation, and research. Meetings both in-person and virtually occurred between the student groups and the community partners to facilitate completion of group assignments. While each group had their own objectives, the overall initiative aimed to provide efficient flu vaccinations to vulnerable populations, promote emergency preparedness, and increase understanding of vaccination access in rural areas. The project team, consisting of Master of Public Health graduate students, the course instructor, and the local health district representatives, worked together to create a comprehensive plan for the successful delivery of seasonal influenza vaccinations in a drive-thru format, ensuring the efficiency of service in preparation for a potential pandemic.
Throughout the semester, students contributed to various aspects of the project, including the development of a social marketing strategy to raise awareness of the clinic (Objective 1) and the creation of tools for evaluating the overall program’s success (Objective 2). Additionally, a review of the literature was conducted to ensure the proposal was grounded in research and ‘best practices’ (Objective 3). Embedded throughout all of these objectives was the concept of rurality and the challenge of implementing interventions within the unique contextual characteristics of rural settings. Ultimately, students gained direct exposure to rural communities’ needs and locally specific issues, leading to the recognition that conducting public service in such areas is often more complex and nuanced than suggested by published literature alone.
Feedback was provided to students by community partners throughout the course to refine their work, with the final deliverables contributing to the community partner’s ongoing emergency preparedness efforts. Students completed a comprehensive critical reflection assignment at the end of the semester, designed to help them synthesize their experiences and connect them with course concepts. The assignment also prompted students to discuss how they contributed to the success of the project, how they have been challenged, and how their values, opinions, and beliefs (if any) changed through the completion of the project. Prior to the summative reflection, informal reflections frequently occurred in structured yet conversational in-class discussions, where the students collectively examined their project experiences, opportunities, and emerging challenges. While the end-of-the-project reflection constituted a large part of the critical reflection, it was limited in scope throughout the rest of the semester since the courses still retained elements of didactic instruction and traditional midterm and final examinations. Ultimately, this course structure yielded less time to incorporate other reflective components that could be used to enhance the service-learning experience. The service-learning component of the course allowed students to gain hands-on experience in addressing public health challenges while applying their learning in social epidemiology to improve community health outcomes in rural, underserved areas. Finally, the work completed throughout the course laid the foundation of a future research project with students who wanted to continue the work after the course ended, which focused on conducting a formal systematic review of the literature regarding successful drive-thru characteristics to contribute to a broader understanding of vaccination access and utilization in times of public health emergencies.
The service-learning designation and survey
The service-learning designation process at the university consisted of professors completing a form through the Office of Leadership and Community Engagement (OLCE) asking questions related to the course, the syllabus, assignments, and the service-learning project to verify the presence of a community partnership that would benefit both students and the community. The OLCE and service-learning faculty fellows at the university reviewed the forms to ensure service-learning criteria were met. As part of the service-learning designation, students were asked at the completion of the courses to complete a survey with questions on the service-learning component, including an assessment of perceptions of skill and career development, civic engagement and community awareness, understanding of diversity, and overall satisfaction. Questions contained Likert-type answers ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree. The survey was developed by the OLCE in an attempt to capture important components of the service-learning experience; it was adopted from Miller et al.’s (2018) Benefits of Academic Community Engagement (BACE) scale, a validated measure capturing student progress in areas of personal development and social responsibility, with select questions added by the OLCE. Questions did not change from 2018 to 2024, allowing for meaningful comparisons across years.
Analysis
Our analytic process consisted of five steps. First, we analyzed descriptive statistics of course evaluations specific to service-learning, with questions related to each service-learning project’s benefits for students. Second, via content analysis and word clouds, we qualitatively analyzed open-ended responses from these surveys that asked students to consider three things they learned from the service-learning experience. Third, we conducted thematic analysis of written reflections from students to understand strengths and weaknesses of the service-learning experiences. Given that the thematic analysis was one component of a larger multiple case study approach (Stake, 2006), it was employed to triangulate findings with the other data points from the project. We grounded our methods in Braun and Clarke’s (2006) guidance on thematic analysis, adopting an inductive, semantic-level approach to ensure the analysis reflected students’ own words and experiences. We coded the written reflections with an eye for strengths, weaknesses, and rural-specific content while allowing other codes to emerge from the data. Codes were then collated into overarching themes built around strengths and weaknesses of the service-learning projects in each class. The final product thus consisted of themes grounded in respondents’ own words which were then situated within the larger framework of findings from other components of the case study (Nowell et al., 2017).
Next, we examined feedback from community partners to demonstrate the usefulness of service-learning projects in rural communities while highlighting areas for improvement. Lastly, we reflected on our own experiences teaching the courses as professors. Data for this case study were gathered and used under the approval of the Institutional Review Board at Georgia Southern University.
Results
Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics by course.
Student service-learning evaluations
Closed-ended responses
Student service-learning survey results.
Note. Means of questions with answers ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree are presented.
Results showed that across both courses, students were fairly neutral on whether they felt uneasy about the service-learning component of the course, with less unease in Program Evaluation (x̄ = 2.25) relative to Social Epidemiology (x̄ = 3.182). Students across both classes expressed strong agreement with questions related to service-learning helping to enhance critical thinking skills (x̄ = 4.917 for Program Evaluation students and x̄ = 4.409 for Social Epidemiology students) and analyze problems (x̄ = 4.667 for Program Evaluation students and x̄ = 4.237 for Social Epidemiology students). The question related to thinking critically showed the highest agreement overall, demonstrating the benefits of service-learning for this competency. Similarly strong agreement occurred for questions related to continuing to serve the community after the course ended and finding the service-learning aspect of the course valuable, especially for Program Evaluation students, who averaged 4.917 and 4.75 on these questions, respectively. High consensus was also evident on questions about the courses enabling students to: understand the difference they can make in their community (x̄ = 4.5 for Program Evaluation students and x̄ = 4.3 for Social Epidemiology students), apply the subject matter to real world situations (x̄ = 4.417 for Program Evaluation students and x̄ = 4.318 for Social Epidemiology students), recommend the course to a friend (x̄ = 4.75 for Program Evaluation students and x̄ = 4.136 for Social Epidemiology students), become more aware of the needs of the community (x̄ = 4.5 for Program Evaluation students and x̄ = 4.227 for Social Epidemiology students), and understand differences in the community (x̄ = 4.583 for Program Evaluation students and x̄ = 4.413 for Social Epidemiology students).
Average scores in Program Evaluation ranged from 4.083 to 4.5 for questions related to becoming more involved in the community, connecting theory to practice, helping with leadership skills, developing workplace skills, making students more employable, developing citizenship skills, enhancing communication skills, developing organizational skills, defining strengths and weaknesses, and defining future work; these ranged from 3.545 to 4.227 in Social Epidemiology. Students in Program Evaluation expressed the least amount of agreement with questions related to the course helping them understand their responsibility to serve the community and develop their citizenship skills, to develop organizational skills, and to define strengths and weaknesses (x̄ = 4.083 for all). Students in Social Epidemiology expressed the least amount of agreement with questions related to the course helping them define the work they want to do in the future (x̄ = 3.545) and their personal strengths and weaknesses (x̄ = 3.7) and making them more employable (x̄ = 3.818). Averages were higher across all metrics for Program Evaluation students relative to Social Epidemiology students.
From a rurality standpoint, the high levels of agreement with questions related to the community highlight the utility of service-learning in these settings. Students’ awareness of local needs and intention to get involved in the community suggest place-based learning can foster a sense of commitment to the community in rural regions facing limited organizational capacity. The application of academic materials to real-world settings represents a critical way for students in rural areas to effectuate meaningful change in their communities.
Open-ended responses
In addition to the closed-ended questions on service-learning, the survey offered students the opportunity to respond to the following open-ended question: “Describe 3 things you learned from your experience.” We used NVivo to develop word clouds with the most frequently mentioned words in these qualitative responses. Figure 1 shows results for Public Program Evaluation. The most frequently used words were analysis-based: data, evaluation, and program. Students regularly mentioned analyzing data and interpreting results to evaluate programs. The next most frequently mentioned words were community, skills, analyze, learned, and needs, highlighting the ability of the service-learning project to help with knowledge about community needs, practical skills, and analytic methods. Analytic skills were mentioned in the context of undertaking evaluations to understand community needs and work with nonprofits in the community, highlighting the benefits of community-focused pedagogy in rural regions. One student made this connection explicit by stating they learned “about programs needed in rural communities.” Word cloud for “three things learned” in public program evaluation.
Figure 2 displays the results for students of Social Epidemiology. The most frequently mentioned words highlight the collaborative nature of the project. The top words included communication, skills, community, learned, leadership, marketing, and organizational. One student succinctly highlighted the collaborative nature of the project by stating they learned the following: “working with different personalities, communication skills, leadership skills.” The team-driven format for service-learning, in this case, helped students hone skills related to working with others to aid the community rather than solely focusing on research and analysis. The community was frequently mentioned, with students expressing an enhanced understanding of underserved communities–e.g., “I learned how different other communities are; I came to understand the need in underserved areas; I learned the importance of considering the dynamics of the population.” One student succinctly captured the ethos of rural public health: “it takes a village to keep a village healthy.” Word cloud for “three things learned” in social epidemiology & health equity.
Student reflections on service-learning
Thematic analysis of strengths and weaknesses according to students.
Another strength shared between the service-learning courses was the perceived improvement of students’ professional skills. Program Evaluation students mentioned the research and evaluation skills they gained from analyzing a real-world dataset, as well as critical thinking, problem solving, and adaptability; while Social Epidemiology students discussed a broad array of skills related to survey design, marketing, research, communication, leadership, and teamwork. Students in both courses emphasized how the service-learning project helped better prepare them for careers in the public sector with some describing new career paths resulting from the projects. As one Social Epidemiology student stated, “I’ve developed a greater appreciation and yearn to work for smaller clinics and health departments. I’ve always been passionate about helping those that have limited access, but hearing and seeing the demographics of the communities we are serving and knowing how important the services that are being provided are, I want to do my part.” And as a Program Evaluation student mentioned, “This project created another career path I could explore to put my degree into practice, especially because I enjoyed the process of evaluating [the community partner]’s programs and services.” These quotes exemplify how working in rural communities shaped students’ viewpoints and career trajectories, with some expressing the desire to work with underserved populations in the future.
In addition to exemplifying the career-related strength, this quote highlights the main difference in strengths between the courses—Social Epidemiology’s service-learning project facilitated an awareness of health inequities in rural areas and the unique challenges involved. Students gained knowledge about the lack of resources and reduced capacity in rural areas and the underserved populations therein. As one student noted, “I was challenged to think more critically about the needs of rural communities. I got to understand how underserved communities have challenges with their healthcare system compared to bigger communities and this has reaffirmed my desire to be involved in rural communities in my career.” Another student reflected on their respect for rural public service practitioners: “I highly value public health professionals that work in such rural areas... I never thought about just how difficult it would be to work in these areas with such limited funding and resources.” Hence, the project’s rural setting cultivated an understanding of community dynamics within these catchment areas that aligned with students’ career goals. The reflections suggest direct engagement with rural health issues deepened students’ commitment to addressing disparities in these communities.
Regarding weaknesses and areas for improvement, both sets of students recommended increasing the amount of community involvement in future courses. Program Evaluation students mentioned how more direct interactions with the community partner would have helped to clarify the goals of the project and better understand its community impact, while those in Social Epidemiology expressed a desire to implement services in the community. One Social Epidemiology student highlighted the difficulties involved in reaching populations in rural settings: “The biggest challenge with this project was being able to adjust to such a small rural setting and translate that over in the project because creating a drive-thru flu clinic is much more difficult in this setting with individuals being much more difficult to reach.” Additionally, students in each class indicated the semester-long timeline made it difficult to complete a comprehensive service-learning project. Program Evaluation students acknowledged the challenges of completing a large-scale evaluation in a single semester, with one student highlighting how resource constraints of the rural community partner complicated the evaluation: “the biggest takeaway is that [the community partner] needs a logic model to clear up their goals as it feels they are trying to do too much when they don’t have many resources.” In Social Epidemiology, some students noted the heavy workload as a weakness while others communicated their desire to contribute more to the project, highlighting the complexities of team-based service-learning.
Such complexities manifested in additional weaknesses related to group project dynamics. Social Epidemiology students expressed concern over some team members not contributing ample effort to the project, thus placing increased burdens on other team members to complete project requirements. Team supervisors identified similar issues from the perspective of leadership: “Leading the team was challenging. I had to put aside all personal feelings in order to get the team to do their work and create a meaningful product.” These difficulties, however, acted as learning experiences for students that reinforced the value of teamwork despite the challenges involved. As one student stated, “I learned to value what everyone has to say and take into account the different opinions in order to make a decision that would be in the best interest for everybody. This skill will be important as I transition into the workforce and continue working with teams in the future.”
Though Program Evaluation did not assign a group project, the weaknesses mentioned similarly highlighted a learning opportunity for students. Data quality issues were identified by students, accompanied by recommendations to have future classes collect original data apart from the self-assessments provided by the community partner, which may contain biases and inconsistencies. Nonetheless, students saw this as an opportunity to address analytical challenges in practical contexts, with one stating, “The information was rather complex and accompanied with some inconsistent data. This gave me a real-world experience that provided me with the understanding that evaluations will never be perfect and the importance of being able to apply critical thinking skills in order to interpret the information.” Such data limitations reflect broader challenges in rural areas, where community-based organizations may not have the capacity to systematically collect and analyze data. Moreover, students in the course mentioned the need to learn how to use statistical software prior to the service-learning project, highlighting a potential gap in the skills provided in the prerequisite research methods course.
Community partner feedback
Feedback from community partners through informal communications provided valuable insight into the benefits and challenges of service-learning in rural areas. Community partners mentioned the service-learning project provided them with helpful labor, research, evaluations, and recommendations to improve services to the community. As one stated, “This time commitment and expertise was extremely valuable to a resource-limited, rural community.” The service-learning projects were thus particularly useful in rural catchments, promoting innovation and leveraging diverse perspectives in areas where public servants face competing demands on limited capacity. One partner noted, “Service-learning projects supplement local resources and fill specific niche areas for learning.” In rural communities where resources may be limited, such supplementation can address gaps in organizational capacity. In addition, the service-learning projects provided practical insights to community partners to inform the decision-making process. As one partner mentioned, “It was really helpful to see what we are doing well and what we need to work on. It just provided much needed insight that we will certainly use to inform our future decisions.”
There were, however, challenges and areas for improvement noted by community partners. Areas for improvement include ensuring that logistics are settled in advance to allow the project to be completed within the semester-long timeline. For example, legal reviews should be completed as soon as possible, and community partners should think ahead to allow academic partners to effectively plan and complete the project. Challenges also included issues with information access between community and academic partners, as well the difficulties involved in undertaking a service-learning project when the needs of the community partner extend beyond a single semester. Additionally, service-learning projects in rural settings require specialized knowledge and skills that students may need to develop, highlighting the benefits of teaching students about rural communities and their unique characteristics. As one partner stated, “It can also be a challenge for students to fully understand the dynamics and characteristics of populations in rural communities.” This observation suggests that service-learning in rural areas requires pedagogy intended to orient students to the realities of rural health disparities, resource constraints, and community norms. Lastly, one community partner cited the need to expand the service-learning project, stating it would be “nice to be able to compare data with similar surrounding counties.” This highlights the potential benefit of comparative analysis for organizations in rural areas while also presenting potential issues related to collaborations and data sharing with multiple community partners.
Professor reflections
From the professors’ perspective, the service-learning courses brought with them unique challenges they had not experienced in non service-learning classes. The professor of Program Evaluation had not taught a service-learning course before, which required a substantial time commitment and reorganization of the class schedule to align the course with the community partner’s timeline in a cohesive manner; likewise, the Social Epidemiology course was also the first time the professor of Public Health used service-learning as an educational tool. Changes to the schedule were sometimes required during the semester. Open communication and transparency with students were thus essential, who had been forewarned that flexibility may be required, much like it is in the real world. Communication with the community partner was also difficult at certain points in the semester. This was no surprise, given that directors of rural public agencies often wear many hats and may be inundated with work. Though difficult, having a clear agreement with the community partner up front about what was expected and when it was expected helped to mitigate problems that arose. Finally, there was a strong desire to spend more sustained time directly embedded in the community; however, the rural nature of the community and the distance from the university made extended visits logistically unfeasible, limiting direct engagement with community members.
Discussion
From the student perspective
Our multiple case study of two service-learning classes in rural regions of the southeast United States revealed important benefits for students and community partners. Regarding the former, students in both courses frequently mentioned benefits related to critical thinking, analysis, and problem-solving, aligning with past research demonstrating the positive effects of service-learning on student skills and competencies (Arinze et al., 2022; Fredericksen, 2000; Gutzweiler et al., 2022; Huda et al., 2018; Markus et al., 1993). Reinke (2003) found that service-learning techniques helped students learn the material in graduate courses on evaluation and research methods in public administration. Our study observed the same, especially in Program Evaluation, wherein the service-learning project focused heavily on analyzing data and evaluating services for a community partner. According to the course surveys, students in this course benefited more from the methods-related material than those in Social Epidemiology, possibly because epidemiology students receive extensive training in data analysis as part of their core curriculum. Instead, Social Epidemiology students mentioned honing a broader range of skills related to marketing, communication, and teamwork, demonstrating the cognitive and interpersonal benefits of service-learning, as these were topics not formally taught in the curriculum. In this course, the team-based design encouraged students to learn and practice skills extending beyond traditional analysis and evaluation, presenting both challenges and opportunities for professional soft skill development.
Students in both courses mentioned the benefits of experiential learning on career readiness. For future and current public administrators, this means effectively designed service-learning projects can facilitate the mastery of NASPAA’s core competencies and prepare students for public sector positions through experiential learning (Bryer, 2014; Lebovits and Bharath, 2019; Simon et al., 2013; Stout, 2013). The different styles across both courses demonstrate service-learning techniques can improve career readiness through developing both soft and hard skills related to NASPAA’s competencies in the United States and abroad. For example, Social Epidemiology helped students hone soft skills in leading and managing in the public interest, while Program Evaluation taught hard skills related to analyzing, synthesizing, thinking critically, solving problems, and making evidence-informed decisions. While this study focused on the United States, findings have relevance for the public administration programs worldwide that aim to enhance practical skills and competency-based education, especially in rural regions.
The service-learning component of the courses also helped students to connect theory and practice in rural settings by assigning applied projects that offered experience with analyzing real-world data and designing public services. Some Program Evaluation students mentioned the data as a challenge; however, this experience provided students with the opportunity to understand and work through the difficulties involved in analyzing actual data provided by community partners. Hence, service-learning in rural settings may be able to bridge the theory-practice gap that pervades the public administration literature (Bryer, 2014; Imperial et al., 2007; Simon et al., 2013; Stout, 2013) while answering the call from Gabehart (2023) to devote attention to rural areas and embrace their uniqueness—a challenge extending to public administration contexts worldwide. The Social Epidemiology course was particularly successful in this regard, incorporating lessons on equity, underserved populations, and resource disparities in rural contexts. Such pedagogy can prepare students for careers working in the communities experiencing these unique challenges and resource constraints (Helpap, 2023; Mueller et al., 2021; Shah et al., 2020). Critical reflection can help students process these real-world contexts and complexities to better connect experiences to class material and theoretical frameworks. Assumptions about rural areas (see Gabehart, 2023) can be interrogated through such reflection to develop a nuanced understanding of the complexities and dynamics of rural communities (Booth and Graves, 2018; Stith et al., 2021).
While both courses supported past research by fostering a civic-mindedness, appreciation for community issues, and understanding of how to get involved in the community (Bryer 2014; Simon et al., 2013; Stout, 2013), Social Epidemiology’s explicit acknowledgment of underserved rural populations provided additional opportunities for student growth. Program Evaluation—and public administration courses, more generally—would benefit from incorporating similar service-learning techniques across various national and cultural rural contexts. In this way, service-learning can encourage students to think critically about important topics such as social justice through direct application (Compare and Albanesi, 2023).
From the community partner perspective
Regarding the benefits of service-learning for community partners in rural areas, the projects produced assets that partners identified as important for long-term programmatic success. Public service provision in rural areas is hindered by resource challenges and limited administrative capacities, hence why these catchments provide fewer public services than others (Helpap, 2023; Lobao and Kelly, 2019). Rural areas face unique public sector challenges that have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic in some cases (Mueller et al., 2021; Shah et al., 2020). These resource constraints may have affected communication, as community partners were sometimes difficult to coordinate with due to their busy schedules, highlighting the need for the student services provided. In the current study, rural community partners emphasized that student and professor expertise filled critical resource and knowledge gaps to contribute insights that inform future decisions. Such benefits occurred in both pre- and post-COVID classrooms, demonstrating value for rural areas in various contexts. This type of academic collaboration has been recognized in public administration studies as a valuable way for classrooms to provide pro bono, innovative solutions to pressing public problems (Bryer, 2011; Gerlach and Reinagel, 2016; Imperial et al., 2007; Waldner et al., 2011). Completing service-learning projects with an awareness of local contexts equips community partners with evidence-based solutions tailored to rural realities (Accordino, 2019; Brunet, 2015). Positive feedback from community partners in both courses demonstrates the ability of universities to leverage service-learning techniques to act as centers of innovation and development in rural regions (Elliott, 2018; Miller and Tuttle, 2007; Real et al., 2014).
Recommendations for implementation
The findings from this in-depth examination of two rural service-learning courses spotlight multiple recommendations for implementation that have relevance for international contexts. First, the importance of building lasting relationships with community stakeholders should not be overlooked. Several theoretical frameworks exist to explain the components of relationship-building in rural communities from an academic perspective, ranging from the social exchange theory that examines the behavior of people when costs and benefits influence the social exchange (Kemp et al., 2021) to the place attachment theory that highlights the person-place bond that can form through experiential learning experiences such as service-learning (Lovett and Chi, 2015). Despite its known importance, building and strengthening the community relationships needed for professors of service-learning courses can be difficult for a variety of reasons, including the professors being perceived as outsiders with short-term commitments, a mismatch between academic goals and community needs, and challenges associated with establishing the social capital needed for successful community engagement. Therefore, significant time and energy should be devoted to establishing strong relationships prior to course implementation, in addition to subsequent course offerings. Having trusting partnerships and clear agreements at the front end of the project helped to mitigate problems as they arose. Building these relationships across jurisdictions could improve the comparative aspect of the service-learning projects to better benefit community partners in rural areas.
Second, our findings showed students frequently mentioned course improvements related to increasing direct community engagement. Though both courses included consistent communication and feedback between students and professors, as well as between professors and community partners (Imperial et al., 2007), students expressed the desire to become more directly involved in service implementation and data collection. It should be noted that levels of community involvement were dictated by the availability and needs of the community partners, highlighting the potential challenges involved in aligning community partner needs and course learning objectives (Dicke et al., 2004). Some students also mentioned how the semester-long timeline rendered it difficult to carry out a large-scale evaluation or implement the services designed. Professors could discuss and make the timeline clear to students early in the semester to ensure all parties are aware of service-learning expectations and potential limitations (Imperial et al., 2007). Critical reflection on the real-world constraints of service-learning projects can assist students in recognizing the flexibility required when undertaking actual public sector work, where timelines and conditions often differ from academic settings. Open communication and transparency with students were essential to ensure they were not surprised if any schedule changes occurred. Timeline constraints in service-learning projects can limit the amount of time devoted to other topics, as was the case in Program Evaluation, where some students indicated their desire to learn more about statistical software. Hence, it is crucial to coordinate with other professors to better understand student competencies prior to the beginning of the course to maximize benefits and minimize challenges within the allotted time frame and to make expectations, deadlines, and limitations known to students.
Finally, though community partners mentioned challenges with service-learning in rural areas related to aligning agency needs with the semester-long timeline, they generally agreed the service-learning projects improved programs and designed effective services. As such, service-learning in rural areas can create mutually beneficial partnerships between rural organizations, academics, and students, thus building the social capital of universities and establishing public affairs programs as key members of the community (D’Agostino, 2008). Consistent with Lata et al. (2024) and Stout (2013), both projects delivered community-driven analyses and assistance to meet the demand for place-based public services with an understanding of community needs. To gain insight into rural dynamics (Gabehart, 2023), it is essential to acknowledge the uniqueness of rural areas and to tailor public affairs pedagogy to said uniqueness to benefit students, who gain crucial experience in these settings, and community partners, who benefit from diverse perspectives on public service. Additionally, it is important to not only recognize rural communities by their distinctiveness from urban areas, but also by the significant variation in identity and social dynamics that exist across rural places themselves. The community partners in the current study were willing to participate in service-learning projects; however, challenges may arise in other rural areas with public organizations who are more hesitant to participate in service-learning opportunities due to a lack of trust. Place-based learning in rural catchments thus requires an understanding of local context. Future studies can better tease out service-learning outcomes across different types of rural regions—e.g., by comparing a context of decline to one of wealth.
Limitations
While these case studies offer valuable insight into service-learning in rural contexts, there are some limitations to consider. Inherent limitations with case studies include a lack of generalizability, selection bias with the use of two courses, and a risk of overstating conclusions drawn from a small sample. Rural areas are typically perceived as static and homogeneous; however, research shows rural communities across the United States are quite heterogeneous and nuanced (Hargrove et al., 2017). Because both courses evaluated in this research were based in rural communities located in one state in the southeast United States, specific opportunities and challenges seen in the implementation of service learning in rural communities outside of this region may not have been adequately captured. Adopters of rural service-learning practices should properly consider the local context and culture specific to their area of practice and work alongside partners currently operating in the targeted communities. Future studies can build upon the current research by incorporating validated measures related to rurality, including those that capture rural heterogeneity and explore how students’ prior experiences with rural communities and perceptions of these catchment types shape their engagement with service-learning. Further research on service-learning in rural areas can also focus more heavily on critical reflection and how different reflection modalities may contribute to student understandings of the nuanced dynamics of rural areas. Scholars can place a greater role of both formal and informal reflective practices in service-learning in order to better understand how sustained dialogue and peer exchange contribute to deeper learning outcomes. Additionally, while each course was described in detail, our qualitative analysis does not fully capture the long-term impact of service-learning on students and communities. Future research should focus on developing, strengthening, and evaluating service-learning models that can be scaled across multiple rural settings and international contexts to evaluate the far-reaching, cumulative effects of providing this opportunity to learn, collaborate, and address local community needs.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this case study examined the experiences of two service-learning courses implemented in rural communities using a program evaluation course and a social epidemiology course as examples. The analysis demonstrated the opportunities and challenges associated with implementing service learning in a rural setting, as well as the benefits identified by the university students enrolled in the courses and the community partners. The findings contribute to the growing body of service-learning literature by discussing the unique aspects of implementing service-learning courses in rural areas using courses that focus on the public sector. Future research should examine the large-scale impact of such courses to better understand how they can be leveraged to benefit both the students and rural communities to maximize or strengthen limited resources. This study underscores the importance of service learning as a complement to traditional, didactic classroom learning in public service education worldwide.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.