Bridging e-commerce and the metaverse: A flow theory approach to consumer behavior

Interactivity

Perceived immersion is the psychological feeling that the user is immersed and absorbed in a virtual environment, with the awareness of the physical environment reduced. Immersive digital environments are cognitively and emotionally engaging, causing users to pay more attention, engage more, and feel more present in the virtual world. In the context of meta-commerce, perceived immersion is crucial as it allows consumers to engage with products and services in a way that closely mimics real-world experiences, thereby enriching the shopping journey.

Interactivity has been defined as “the degree to which a communication technology can enable a mediated environment in which participants can communicate (one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many), synchronously and asynchronously, and engage in reciprocal message exchange.” ⁷¹ It has been demonstrated that perceived interactivity of an information system has a significant impact on the reactions of users to computer-mediated communications. ⁷² Previous research has shown that interactivity has a significant effect on users’ perceptions in different digital environments such as smartphone apps, ⁷³ virtual reality systems, ⁷⁴ and virtual reality shopping websites. ³⁸ Moreover, interactivity has been identified as one of the most important aspects of consumer experiences and decision-making processes in all research studies on emerging media technologies.^75–78

Interactivity is based on the concept of Flow Theory, which aims to provide a more immersive experience by allowing users to interact with the digital content instead of simply passively receiving information. The interactive exchange allows the user to be more psychologically engaged in the virtual environment, thereby enhancing the user’s feeling of engagement and absorption. ⁷⁹ For instance, augmented reality applications with interactive capabilities have been shown to capture consumers’ attention to visual content, enhancing the immersive experience. ⁷⁸ This increased immersion then leads to more positive attitudes towards the technology, such as higher levels of enjoyment and usefulness. ⁸⁰

Interactivity has been consistently recognized as an important antecedent of immersion in shopping environments.^72,75 Interactive systems have a participatory nature that enables the user to affect the outcome of the system, manipulate virtual objects, and control their experiences, which creates a greater sense of presence in the environment. This connection is especially important in the context of the meta-commerce, where VR, AR, and MR technologies allow consumers to interact with products and services in a much more realistic manner. ⁸¹ Consumers can interact with digital objects as if they were in the real world using features like 3D product visualization, virtual product demonstrations and simulated consumption experiences. These interactive experiences, like those in Flow Theory, increase the concentration, involvement, and engagement of the users, leading to a greater sense of immersion in the virtual shopping environment. Thus, increased interactivity should lead to an increased sense of immersion in the meta-commerce environment for consumers.

H1:“Interactivity positively influences perceived immersion.”

Vividness

Technological characteristics that enhance the richness and realism of the virtual environment are expected to strengthen consumers’ immersive experiences. This suggests that vividness may play a crucial role in fostering immersion within meta-commerce settings one of the key technological factors that contributes to perceived immersion is vividness. According to Steuer, ⁸² vividness is defined as “the representational richness of a mediated environment” and is associated with both sensory breadth and sensory depth. Sensory breadth refers to the variety and range of sensory channels simultaneously stimulated during an experience, whereas sensory depth relates to the quality and richness of the information conveyed through those sensory channels. ⁸³ In online retail environments, vivid information can influence several aspects of consumer decision-making by reducing uncertainty, enhancing product understanding, and compensating for the lack of physical interaction with products. ⁸⁴ Consequently, vividness has been widely associated with the quality of product presentation and the effectiveness of digital communication. ⁷⁸

In this study, vividness is defined as sensory depth, which is the quality and richness of content provided in the context of meta-commerce. Empirical studies on vividness in the context of meta-commerce are still scarce, but research in virtual and immersive environments has consistently shown that vividness is a key factor in immersion.^85,86 The use of rich visual representations, realistic simulations and high quality sensory cues helps users to interact with virtual environments and create more immersive experiences. Similarly, Vishwakarma ⁸⁷ argued that panoramic virtual environments enriched with vivid virtual reality features and 3D representations significantly increase users’ feelings of immersion. Because virtual reality environments are inherently rich in sensory information, greater vividness can intensify users’ perception of being surrounded by and engaged in the virtual world.^88,89 Therefore, higher levels of vividness in meta-commerce environments are expected to enhance consumers’ perceived immersion.

H2: “Vividness positively influences perceived immersion.”

Perceived immersion

Immersion was defined by Witmer and Singer ⁹⁰ as “a psychological state characterized by perceiving oneself to be enveloped by, included in, and interacting with an environment that provides a continuous stream of stimuli and experiences.” Immersion encompasses the concurrent engagement of both physical and psychological aspects. ⁹¹ It indicates a shift away from ordinary experiences and the adoption of a unique role or identity. Immersion has the potential to induce a loss of temporal and spatial awareness in individuals, as they totally commit themselves to the current moment. According to Vishwakarma et al. ⁸⁷ individuals in immersive environments disengage from their tangible surroundings and real-world context, immersing themselves in the exploration of virtual places. According to Shen et al., ⁹² immersion represents the cognitive experience or perception of individuals being physically present within a nonphysical setting. Rose et al. ⁹³ further contend that multimodal inputs including music, images, and free movement form users’ experience of presence and immersion in simulated settings.

In fact, the metaverse provides a wide range of immersive experiences that merge aspects of social interactions with the enjoyment obtained from consuming media. ⁷ In particular, it is argued that VR/AR-based devices offer means of accessing the metaverse, which exhibit similarities with pre-existing immersive media. ⁹⁴ This suggests that current accessibility protocols for immersive content can be readily adjusted to accommodate metaverse-based applications. Perceiving a prominent level of immersion in the metaverse can foster a deeper sense of engagement and connection with both the virtual environment and fellow users. This increased engagement typically increases telepresence, merging the physical and virtual worlds and making users forget their physical location. ⁹⁵ describe telepresence as a psychological phenomenon where individuals perceive physical presence in a nonphysical environment. This sensation is intensified by factors such as high-quality graphics, realistic audio, and interactive elements.

In meta-commerce, consumers engage with virtual products, creating a more immersive shopping experience than traditional online platforms. This interaction enables them to explore, test, and evaluate both the appearance and functionality of products before purchasing. As a result, customers develop a deeper understanding of products and experience an enhanced sense of telepresence. Telepresence also encompasses social presence; the feeling of connection with others in virtual spaces.^96,97 By integrating social networking, chat features, and multiplayer gaming elements, meta-commerce platforms strengthen user engagement while fostering both telepresence and community connections.

H3a: “Perceived immersion positively influences perceived telepresence.”

Online shoppers mainly depend on the information offered by the stores as they are unable to physically interact with the products. ⁹⁸ Without physical interaction with products, shopping online may make quality assessment harder and raise questions about suitability. Pavlou et al. ⁹⁹ suggest that perceived product diagnosticity can be determined by signals. Product representation plays a significant role in shaping consumer perceptions and understanding of a product’s features, ultimately helping to inform better purchase decisions. ³⁸

Considering the discussion above, prior e-commerce studies investigate the influence of visual and functional control on product perception. It is found that functional control, where users interact with product features, has a beneficial impact on perceived diagnosticity as compared to pallid image presentations. ¹⁰⁰ Functional control outweighs visual control; heightened visual control minimally alters the representation format. It is also found that video presentations increase perceived diagnosticity more than pallid image presentations. ¹⁰¹ In fact, highly immersive VR shopping settings closely mimic physical stores in terms of visual presentation and interactive features. ¹⁰² Immersive technologies have the potential to effectively boost consumer experience by offering 360-degree views, hand gesture rotation, and customizable product positioning. ³⁸ In addition, a valid product evaluation that mimics real-life activities can be performed through true-to-scale product representation.

The metaverse offers lifelike 3D product visualizations, allowing consumers to explore products from multiple angles, enhancing their understanding of product features. ²⁹ The metaverse provides realistic real-world time simulations that provide users control over time settings and extensive information.^81,103 Hence, meta-e-commerce simulates real-life use to help consumers decide if a product fits their lifestyle and meets their needs. Particularly, product manipulation, virtual fitting, and functionality testing are possible scenarios in the metaverse environment. ¹⁰⁴ Such hands-on interactions can significantly support consumers to comprehend products’ features and performance, therefore, improving diagnosticity.

H3b:“Perceived immersion positively influences perceived product diagnosticity.”

Perceived telepresence

Telepresence finds its roots in interactions within virtual settings, where the perceiver experiences real or simulated worlds. ¹⁰⁵ It refers to the perception of presence in a technologically mediated virtual environment rather than in the physical real-world environment, as well as the sense of realism associated with objects (e.g., products or services) within that virtual space.^95,106 Telepresence has been described in two main ways throughout the literature. One perspective emphasizes the broader environmental dimension, defining telepresence as the experience of existing in a setting created through electronic media. ⁸² The other adopts an individual perspective, viewing telepresence as a person’s ability to mentally transfer themselves to another location. ¹⁰⁷ Consistent with the latter perspective, this study focuses on the individual’s perception of telepresence and defines it as the sensation of being mentally transported into a virtual environment such as meta-commerce.

Although immersion and telepresence are closely related concepts, they represent distinct psychological phenomena. Immersion is mainly a measure of how much a person is cognitively and emotionally engaged in a virtual environment. It is a measure of how much users become immersed in an activity and focus on the mediated experience. In contrast, telepresence is the feeling of being “there” in the virtual space, not in one’s own space. In other words, immersion is about how immersed users are in the virtual experience, while telepresence is about how they feel they are present in the virtual environment. Based on the concept of Flow Theory, immersion can be considered as a state of deep involvement and absorption, and telepresence as a perception that enables such immersion, resulting in a realistic sense of presence in the virtual world. Thus, while both constructs are important for enriching the meta-commerce experience, they are different aspects of the users’ virtual experiences and are treated as separate constructs in the proposed research model.

The importance of telepresence can also be explained through Flow Theory. Telepresence makes it easier for users to become absorbed in a medium and immersed in an imaginary world. In online environments, telepresence plays an important role in facilitating flow experiences by creating a strong sense of “being there” within the virtual environment. When users perceive themselves as physically present in a mediated environment, they are more likely to focus their attention on the activity, become immersed in interactions, and experience greater enjoyment.

Meta-commerce environments are particularly conducive to the development of telepresence. Unlike traditional platforms, the metaverse is a virtual 3D environment that allows people to interact and communicate with each other via virtual presence and avatars, thereby sharing activities and experiences. ¹⁰⁸ The value of the metaverse is in facilitating interpersonal interactions via simulated physical proximity and 3D product displays. These environments can create a feeling of proximity between participants, even when they are physically apart, by using virtual spaces and avatar interactions. ¹⁰⁹ Moreover, the metaverse can be used to showcase products in rich and detailed 3D visualizations, allowing consumers to assess them using rich and detailed visual information. ¹⁰⁵ The immersive social environments of the metaverse allow product demonstrations to feel realistic and interactive. Moreover, the use of avatars enhances users’ perceptions of telepresence within the metaverse environment. ¹¹⁰

The immersiveness of meta-commerce is likely to foster a stronger sense of telepresence, as consumers increasingly feel as though they are present within a virtual store. Compared with traditional e-commerce, meta-commerce creates a stronger sense of presence through interactive features and richer sensory stimulation. Realistic interactions among consumers, avatars, products, and virtual locations contribute to an engaging and immersive shopping experience. Drawing on Flow Theory, such experiences facilitate deeper involvement and enjoyment by creating a compelling sense of presence within the virtual environment.

Previous studies provide evidence that telepresence significantly enhances enjoyment and satisfaction in digital shopping contexts.^94,111–113 The realistic telepresence enabled by meta-commerce is likely to make shopping more entertaining, engaging, and intrinsically rewarding. By facilitating a compelling sense of presence in the virtual environment, meta-commerce provides an enjoyable and pleasurable experience that consumers perceive as valuable in itself. Therefore, telepresence represents a key experiential characteristic of meta-commerce that enhances consumers’ enjoyment of the virtual shopping experience.

H4: “Perceived telepresence positively influences perceived enjoyment.”

Perceived product diagnosticity

A system’s usefulness refers to its ability to assist in carrying out desired tasks. ¹¹⁴ In shopping contexts, a key task is comprehending product information to inform purchase decisions. Jiang et al. ¹¹⁵ point out that the degree to which consumers believe a website can convey relevant product information assists them in comprehending and assessing the utility of products and services. In the same vein, Kempf and Smith ¹¹⁶ define perceived diagnosticity of a product trial as “the degree to which the consumer believes the trial is useful in evaluating the brand’s attributes.” It refers to the clarity and usefulness of online product information, enabling consumers to effectively evaluate and differentiate products. ¹¹⁷ High diagnosticity lowers consumer uncertainty and boosts purchase confidence, especially critical in online shopping where physical product inspection is unavailable. ¹¹⁸ This connects diagnosticity to usefulness. A primary consumer goal is attaining thorough understanding of products to enable informed assessments. ³⁸ Shopping environments that enhance product knowledge should thus increase perceived usefulness. ¹¹⁹ Jiang and Benbasat ¹²⁰ demonstrated this in a study comparing product presentation formats, finding that higher website diagnosticity led to higher perceived website usefulness.

Product diagnosticity in metaverse retailing is the measure of the dynamic, experiential setting in which products are made available, the way in which they are experienced and their interaction possibilities in the virtual world. Virtual stores duplicate and augment physical shop with in-depth, space expanding interactions in which users can explore, choose, and inspect merchandise using interactive functions and entertaining experiences that cannot be supported in a physical store. ²⁸ Although technical limitations such as lack of access to accurate product information (e.g., color, fabric, or size) are hard to overlook, ¹²¹ metaverse retailing alleviates it by allowing virtual simulations, real-time customer support, and demonstrations become more expressive and engaging. ¹²² This combination of the Gamified Presentations and the adaptive information delivery can redefine the consumer interactions, that balances on limitations of the virtual environment and finds some novel ways and redefines the holistic and dynamic shopping experience. ¹²³

Perceived diagnosticity of product is likely to influence perceptions of usefulness in metaverse shopping environments. If metaverse platforms allow shoppers to effectively assess products and reduce uncertainty, they will be perceived as more useful tools for informed purchase decisions. Metaverse provides consumers with a more engaging shopping experience where they can engage with products in a virtual environment, which can have a strong influence on their preferences towards the usefulness of the product.^124,125 The metaverse provides a visualization and interactivity of products that is way more impressive than the traditional e-commerce. ¹³ Perceived diagnosticity can be improved in metaverse shopping spaces due to high-quality information and images, which allows users to make more accurate product assessments.^94,126 The more diagnostic the platform is, the more useful it is perceived and the more useful it becomes in making informed decisions. ¹²⁷ Interactional characteristics, such as 3D product manipulation and virtual tries-on replicate the physical interaction, whereas elements of trust, such as media richness and social presence, encourage the user-confidence.^128,129 All of these enhance the clarity of the decision-making process, enhance the level of engagement, trust the reliability of the platform, and make the experience of shopping more practical and convincing. ¹³⁰ Research on VR-based shopping has connected higher diagnosticity to increased usefulness perceptions. ³⁸ Meta-commerce will likely show the same effect; the better a platform can help a customer gain product knowledge using interactive, vivid imagery and knowledge, the more successful the perception of its usefulness in making a knowledgeable and fulfilling purchase.

H5:“Perceived product diagnosticity positively influence perceived usefulness.”

Perceived usefulness

It is possible to identify two different kinds of consumers; the problem solvers, and the fun seekers. ⁸³ To identify the hedonic and utilitarian value of metaverse to the consumers during shopping, perceived enjoyment and usefulness are applied in the study. The facility of customers to locate and access basic product information to support purchase decisions can be discussed as perceived usefulness in online contexts. ⁷⁸ Perceived usefulness represents the strong belief in the practical value of a technology. ¹¹⁴ It is the extent to which users believe technology will help them achieve their goals better than other options. This belief consistently serves as the foundation for technology adoption in various contexts, primarily owing to heightened user performance.^131,132 Specifically, a technology’s usefulness is determined by whether it provides tangible benefits that make it worth incorporating into users’ everyday routines. Prior VR and metaverse adoption research in various contexts highlight perceived usefulness as a key facilitator of user adoption intention.^35,133 Likewise, the literature of online shopping has steadily regarded perceived usefulness as a critical factor influencing behavioral intention.^38,83,113 These studies demonstrate that VR-based environments offer more detailed product information than a conventional web platform. Consumers can effortlessly manipulate the content in VR to precisely determine product characteristics (e.g., size and fit). Accordingly, perceived usefulness in this study is related to consumers’ overall perceptions of the entire metaverse functional experience in enhancing their purchasing performance.

Aligned with previous research, this study suggests that having a positive perception of meta-commerce’s usefulness leads to amplified adoption intention. In particular, perceived usefulness boosts meta-commerce adoption intention by providing consumers with tangible benefits and valuable features (i.e., personalized recommendations and product diagnosticity). These features promote a favorable inclination towards adoption as they enhance shoppers’ experiences and outcomes. In addition, prominent levels of perceived usefulness can substantially lower feelings of uncertainty and complexity associated with meta-commerce. If customers think meta-commerce is simple, efficient, and meets their shopping needs, they are prone to adopting meta-commerce for shopping. Therefore, positive perceptions of usefulness can reduce perceived risks and barriers to adoption, leading to increased customer confidence and willingness to use meta-commerce.

H6: “Perceived usefulness positively influences meta-commerce adoption intention.”

Perceived enjoyment

Perceived enjoyment is associated with the hedonic aspect of shopping, as opposed to the instrumental aspect of perceived usefulness.^132,134 Venkatesh ¹³⁵ points out that enjoyment perception is the extent to which “the activity of using a specific system is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right, aside from any performance consequences resulting from system use.” According to Kim et al., ¹³⁶ consumer affective responses such as enjoyable, pleasurable, humorous, and joyful conditions constitute enjoyment in a VR environment. The extant literature of online shopping has confirmed the perception of enjoyment has a direct positive effect on adoption intention.^83,112,113 Perceived enjoyment in the present study pertains to the overall emotional hedonism of consumers as an experiential purchasing consequence of the entire metaverse experience. Consumers are inclined to form favorable attitudes towards utilizing meta-commerce platforms for online shopping when they find these platforms enjoyable and entertaining. The enjoyment derived from using meta-commerce platforms can stem from several factors. This includes features such as the ease of navigation, interactive features, personalized recommendations, immersive experiences, and social aspects such as peer interactions and user-generated content.^20,110 These factors make meta-commerce more pleasurable and engaging, boosting customers’ likelihood to use it. Hence, consumers are more inclined to spend additional time exploring the features, browsing products, and making purchases on a meta-commerce platform when they find it enjoyable.

H7: “Perceived enjoyment positively influences meta-commerce adoption intention.”

Data collection and procedure

This study’s main objective was to identify the main factors influencing the adoption intention of meta-commerce. Meta-commerce in this study is defined as the use of metaverse-based virtual environments for the commercial exchange of both real-life goods and virtual goods. Specifically, our focus includes virtual retail environments where consumers can purchase physical products that are delivered in the real world, as well as purely digital goods such as virtual clothing, accessories, or NFTs. Given the limited implementation of actual meta-commerce platforms in Jordan, the study targeted online shoppers who have prior experience with virtual reality (VR)-based technologies, as they are more likely to understand and engage with the concept of meta-commerce. A purposive sampling technique was used to identify and recruit participants who met specific inclusion criteria: (1) they must be active online shoppers from Jordan and (2) they must have used VR technologies (e.g., VR headsets, immersive virtual environments, or VR-based shopping applications). Individuals who did not meet these criteria were excluded from participation. To operationalize this, a screening question was included at the beginning of the online questionnaire to confirm whether respondents met the eligibility criteria. Only those who indicated both online shopping activity and prior experience with VR technologies were allowed to proceed with completing the full survey. A survey questionnaire was created by means of Google Forms and the link to the questionnaire was shared via a targeted outreach on social media sources like Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, and others. Social media was exploited to access communities which might have people with the necessary experience by using relevant hashtags (e.g., #metaversebrand, #metaverse retail, etc.). This design was used to make the sample representative of the target population of the research. The period of data collection was about 3 months, between November 2nd, 2024, and February 8th, 2025.

The survey comprised two primary sections. The first section aimed to collect demographic data, while the second section measured the research model constructs. All items were measured using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree.” The measurement items were adapted from recent, relevant, and well-established studies (see Appendix 1) and were carefully modified to align with the specific context of this study. For instance, the items measuring perceived product diagnosticity were adapted from Chen et al., ⁹⁴ who originally developed them to assess diagnosticity in virtual reality shopping environments. To suit the meta-commerce context, these items were revised to emphasize users’ immersive and interactive experiences in evaluating product features, simulating physical interaction within a virtual environment. Similarly, the items for the other constructs were adapted from prior metaverse retailing research and were slightly modified to enhance readability and clarity. These modifications ensured that the constructs accurately reflected user experiences within the meta-commerce environment while maintaining the validity of the original scales. To ensure the face and content validity of the survey, two professors with extensive academic and research backgrounds in information systems and multimedia evaluated the survey items. They suggested minor corrections to improve the readability of some items. Additionally, the survey was pilot tested with 37 respondents, and the internal consistency evaluation was satisfactory.

The survey was available in both Arabic and English languages. A back-translation approach was employed to ensure the reliability of the translation process. A total of 503 responses were initially collected. However, 69 respondents did not meet the predefined screening criteria and were therefore excluded from the study. Additionally, 21 responses were eliminated due to incomplete answers in at least 80% of the survey. Consequently, 413 valid responses were retained for the final data analysis (see Table 1). The final sample size of 413 was deemed appropriate as it exceeded the required sample size of 153 calculated by G*Power software.

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Table 1.

Respondents’ profile.

Demographic		Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male	263	51
	Female	250	49
Age	<25	104	20
	26–35	200	39
	36–45	125	24
	>45	84	16
Education	Undergraduate	392	76
	Postgraduate	93	18
	Other	28	5
Online shopping experience	<1	83	16
	1–3	215	42
	>3	115	22
Virtual-based technologies experience	<1	161	31
	1–3	183	36
	>3	69	13

Common method bias

As the current study adopts a cross-sectional approach, it is susceptible to common method bias (CMB). Kock et al. ¹³⁷ point out that CMB may arise when “both the independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables are measured within one survey, using the same response technique.” Controlling CMB has the potential to affect the reliability of survey items and compromise the findings’ validity. In order to address the concern of CMB, two distinct categories of controls were employed in this study: statistical controls and procedural controls. ¹³⁸ In particular, procedural controls are conducted before data collection, while statistical controls are carried out after data collection. Procedural controls involve designing the survey to provide clear instructions, safeguarding respondent anonymity, evading ambiguous items, and maintaining survey brevity. Furthermore, the survey design in this study has ensured diversification of survey scale layouts to collect the IVs and DVs, while also separating the measurement items of IVs and DVs proximally. Regarding statistical control, “Harman’s single-factor test” was utilized to analyze all the measurement items through “Exploratory Factor Analysis.” ¹³⁹ The results indicate that all measurement items are grouped into eight factors, with the first factor explaining 44.3% of the variance (below the 50% threshold), suggesting no concerns regarding CMB.

Structural Equation Modeling using Partial Least Squares (PLS-SEM) was selected as the analytical technique due to the complexity of the conceptual model, which incorporates multiple latent constructs and simultaneous relationships. While PLS-SEM is robust to violations of normality, the data in the present study exhibited acceptable levels of normality, with skewness values ranging from −0.298 to −0.209 and kurtosis values ranging from −0.819 to −0.660 (Appendix 2). Consequently, the use of PLS-SEM was justified by the model’s complexity and the study’s predictive objectives rather than by concerns regarding non-normal data distributions. The data analysis in SEM-PLS is typically performed in two stages: the measurement model and the structural model. The measurement model stage focuses on assessing the reliability and validity of the constructs or latent variables in the model. In this stage, the relationships between the observed variables (indicators) and their corresponding latent variables are examined. After establishing a satisfactory measurement model, the structural model stage focuses on assessing the relationships between the latent variables (constructs) in the model.

Measurement model

In our study, we treated all variables as reflective. First, we checked the measurement model to make sure our constructs were reliable and valid. The Composite Reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s Alpha (α) scores were over 0.7, indicating good internal consistency. The “Average Variance Extracted” (AVE) values were above 0.5, showing strong convergent validity. All measurement item loadings were higher than 0.708, confirming their reliability. The AVE values for each construct being above 0.5 further confirmed convergent validity (Tables 2 and 3).

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Table 2.

Reliability and validity assessment.

Construct	Item	Loading	α	CR	AVE	VIF
Perceived product diagnosticity	PPD_1	0.847	0.872	0.912	0.722	-
	PPD_2	0.838
	PPD_3	0.859
	PPD_4	0.855
Perceived enjoyment	ENJ_1	0.845	0.841	0.894	0.677	1.670
	ENJ_2	0.817
	ENJ_3	0.817
	ENJ_4	0.812
Perceived immersion	PIM_1	0.851	0.823	0.895	0.739	-
	PIM_2	0.861
	PIM_3	0.867
Adoption intention	ADI_1	0.864	0.800	0.882	0.714	-
	ADI_2	0.834
	ADI_3	0.837
Interactivity	INT_1	0.859	0.787	0.875	0.701	1.593
	INT_2	0.832
	INT_3	0.819
Perceived telepresence	PTE_1	0.827	0.849	0.899	0.688	-
	PTE_2	0.831
	PTE_3	0.811
	PET_4	0.849
Perceived usefulness	PUS_1	0.810	0.848	0.898	0.687	1.672
	PUS_2	0.812
	PUS_3	0.834
	PUS_4	0.859
Vividness	VIV_1	0.868	0.829	0.897	0.745	1.593
	VIV_2	0.840
	VIV_3	0.880

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Table 3.

Discriminant validity assessment

​	Adoption intention	Perceived product diagnosticity	Perceived immersion	Interactivity	Perceived enjoyment	Perceived usefulness	Perceived telepresence	Vividness
Adoption intention	0.845	0.718	0.676	0.658	0.850	0.841	0.736	0.667
Perceived product diagnosticity	0.601	0.850	0.720	0.707	0.653	0.671	0.795	0.691
Perceived immersion	0.549	0.610	0.860	0.780	0.629	0.627	0.787	0.718
Interactivity	0.521	0.586	0.630	0.837	0.593	0.627	0.806	0.752
Perceived enjoyment	0.699	0.560	0.524	0.482	0.823	0.750	0.685	0.653
Perceived usefulness	0.694	0.578	0.524	0.514	0.633	0.829	0.669	0.630
Perceived telepresence	0.608	0.684	0.659	0.658	0.580	0.568	0.830	0.690
Vividness	0.543	0.588	0.594	0.610	0.544	0.528	0.580	0.863

To confirm discriminant validity, we compared the √AVE for each construct with its correlations with other constructs. The √AVE values (main diagonal in bold) were higher than the correlations (below the main diagonal), supporting discriminant validity. The Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) test values (above the main diagonal) were all below 0.85, further supporting discriminant validity.

Structural model

The model fit assessment indicates acceptable results for both the saturated and estimated models. The SRMR values (0.042 and 0.078) are below the recommended threshold of 0.08, indicating good fit. ¹⁴⁰ The discrepancy measures (d_ULS and d_G) are within acceptable ranges, suggesting a reasonable alignment between the empirical and model-implied matrices. Additionally, the NFI values (0.912 and 0.903) exceed the 0.90 threshold, confirming adequate fit. The use of multiple fit indices enhances the robustness of the model assessment, as each index captures different aspects of model fit. While SRMR evaluates the average magnitude of residuals, d_ULS and d_G assess discrepancies between empirical and estimated matrices, and NFI compares the proposed model against a null model. The convergence of these indicators provides consistent evidence regarding the adequacy of the proposed model. Furthermore, the results of the measurement model evaluation support this conclusion. Specifically, all constructs demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity, as evidenced by acceptable factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, and AVE values. In addition, discriminant validity was established through the Fornell–Larcker criterion and HTMT ratios. Collectively, these findings indicate that the measurement model is both reliable and valid, thereby reinforcing the robustness of the overall model fit and supporting the suitability of the proposed structural model.

The initial step in this stage involves assessing the path coefficients (β), which correspond to the proposed hypotheses. As illustrated in Table 4, all path coefficients were found to be statistically significant, providing support for all hypotheses. Notably, interactivity (β = 0.427, p < 0.001) and vividness (β = 0.333, p < 0.001) emerged as key determinants of perceived immersion, both exerting substantial and statistically significant positive effects. The magnitude of these coefficients suggests that interactivity has a slightly stronger influence on perceived immersion compared to vividness. These results underscore the importance of both factors in shaping perceived immersion, with interactivity demonstrating a particularly robust relationship. Furthermore, perceived immersion was identified as a crucial enabler for both perceived telepresence and perceived product diagnosticity. In particular, perceived immersion demonstrated a substantial impact on perceived telepresence with a path coefficient of β = 0.659 (p < 0.001). This indicates that improvements in perceived immersion are associated with significant enhancements in perceived telepresence. Likewise, perceived immersion (β = 0.610, p < 0.001) exhibited a significant influence on perceived product diagnosticity. This particularly signifies that advancements in perceived immersion contribute significantly to perceived product diagnosticity.

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Table 4.

Hypotheses testing.

Hypotheses	Path	β	f 2	a Mean	STDEV	T statistics	Confidence intervals	p values	Result
H1	Interactivity → perceived immersion	0.427	0.215	0.428	0.049	8.785	[0.331, 0.523]	0.000	Supported
H2	Vividness → perceived immersion	0.333	0.131	0.333	0.050	6.706	[0.236, 0.428]	0.000	Supported
H3a	Perceived immersion → perceived telepresence	0.659	0.767	0.660	0.031	21.534	[0.597, 0.718]	0.000	Supported
H3b	Perceived immersion → perceived product diagnosticity	0.610	0.594	0.611	0.037	16.424	[0.535, 0.681]	0.000	Supported
H4	Perceived telepresence → perceived enjoyment	0.580	0.507	0.582	0.039	14.923	[0.504, 0.655]	0.000	Supported
H5	Perceived product diagnosticity → perceived usefulness	0.578	0.501	0.579	0.037	15.558	[0.500, 0.648]	0.000	Supported
H6	Perceived enjoyment → adoption intention	0.433	0.276	0.434	0.048	9.108	[0.430, 0.525]	0.000	Supported
H7	Perceived usefulness → adoption intention	0.420	0.259	0.420	0.051	8.249	[0.318, 0.517]	0.000	Supported

Perceived telepresence was found to exert a significant and substantial positive influence (β = 0.580, p < 0.001) on perceived enjoyment. This suggests that the increase in perceived telepresence leads to a considerable corresponding increase in perceived enjoyment among consumers. Moreover, perceived product diagnosticity demonstrated a significant positive impact (β = 0.578, p < 0.001) on perceived usefulness. This implies that increased perceived product diagnosticity is linked with prominently improved in perceived usefulness among consumers. This highlights the importance of product diagnosticity in shaping consumers’ evaluation of a meta-commerce’s utility. Finally, perceived enjoyment (β = 0.433, p < 0.001) and perceived usefulness (β = 0.420, p < 0.001) emerged as critical determinants of meta-commerce adoption intention. These findings highlight perceived enjoyment and perceived usefulness as essential drivers of adoption intention in meta-commerce.

The coefficient of determination (R²) for adoption intention was found to be 0.594, indicating that 59.4% of the variance in adoption intention is accounted for by perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment. This level of explained variance suggests a moderate predictive capability of the outcome variable. ¹⁴⁰ Additionally, R² values for perceived product diagnosticity, perceived immersion, perceived enjoyment, perceived usefulness, and perceived telepresence separately were 0.373, 0.467, 0.337, 334, and 0.434, respectively, indicating moderate predictive abilities (refer to Table 5). The f² values ranged from 0.131 to 0.767, indicating medium to large effect size (≥ 0.35 large; 0.15 medium, ≥0.02 small). ¹⁴¹

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Table 5.

Predictive performance evaluation.

Construct	Q2 predict	Item	Q2 predict	R2	PLSRMSE	LMRMSE	PLSRMSE < LMRMSE
Adoption intention	0.205	ADI_1	0.153	0.594	1.159	1.098	No
		ADI_2	0.136		1.133	1.183	Yes
		ADI_3	0.150		1.085	1.150	Yes
Perceived product diagnosticity	0.368	PPD_1	0.277	0.373	1.073	1.099	Yes
		PPD_2	0.256		1.157	1.141	No
		PPD_3	0.272		1.081	1.108	Yes
		PPD_4	0.256		1.110	1.130	Yes
Perceived immersion	0.459	PIM_1	0.339	0.467	1.055	1.062	Yes
		PIM_2	0.346		1.059	1.065	Yes
		PIM_3	0.332		1.052	1.060	Yes
Perceived enjoyment	0.225	ENJ_1	0.151	0.337	1.116	1.145	Yes
		ENJ_2	0.140		1.163	1.138	No
		ENJ_3	0.161		1.088	1.135	Yes
		ENJ_4	0.158		1.044	1.095	Yes
Perceived usefulness	0.219	PUS_1	0.144	0.334	1.135	1.179	Yes
		PUS_2	0.136		1.152	1.188	Yes
		PUS_3	0.160		1.079	1.132	Yes
		PUS_4	0.160		1.171	1.119	No
Perceived telepresence	0.418	PTE_1	0.275	0.434	1.130	1.149	Yes
		PTE_2	0.284		1.052	1.078	Yes
		PTE_3	0.286		1.115	1.085	No
		PTE_4	0.306		1.072	1.097	Yes

The Q²_predict values, representing predictive performance on both construct and measurement item levels, for adoption intention, perceived product diagnosticity, perceived immersion, perceived enjoyment, perceived usefulness, and perceived telepresence were notably above zero, indicating satisfactory predictive performance of the research model. Furthermore, the predictive capacity of the research model is evaluated using the PLS Predict methodology, following the methodology proposed by Shmueli et al. ¹⁴² This evaluation involves comparing the root mean squared errors (RMSE) obtained from Partial Least Squares (PLS) with those from a baseline linear regression model (LM). As presented in Table 5, the PLS model consistently demonstrates lower RMSE scores across all indicators of the dependent variables, except for ADI_1, PPD_2, ENJ_2, PUS_4, and PTE_3. This indicates the robust overall predictive performance of the proposed research framework, as it effectively minimizes prediction errors.

Theoretical implications

The results of this study have important theoretical implications for the study of the adoption of meta-commerce. The study contributes to the existing literature on the adoption of meta-commerce, as there is limited research on the topic, and it explores the key drivers of adoption intentions using the lens of the Flow Theory. To the authors’ best knowledge, this is the first use of Flow Theory in the context of meta-commerce, providing a new insight into user behavior in virtual commercial environments. The R2 value of 0.594 for the research model confirms that the model is sufficiently explanatory, thus the theoretical basis of this study is appropriate for examining the intention to adopt meta-commerce. The findings of this successful implementation of Flow Theory in this study show that this theory can be applied in other contexts beyond the traditional e-commerce context, which provides new avenues for theoretical research in new digital markets.

The research model proposed by the flow theory is expanded to explain the scope of the meta-commerce phenomenon by adding context-specific factors. These factors also enhance its theoretical foundation and application. This not only adds to the growing body of literature on meta-commerce but also offers a deeper insight into the psychological and experiential aspects of meta-commerce adoption. Moreover, the novelty of the study’s use of the Flow Theory in the context of the meta-commerce provides a framework for future research and serves as an inspiration to researchers to investigate the applicability of other theories in this new field. The effectiveness of this theoretical framework in explaining adoption intentions could inspire a reconsideration of the current technology adoption models, and create more context-specific and comprehensive theories for virtual commerce environments.

Practical implications

The results of this study have several managerial implications for companies looking to create and market their meta-commerce platforms. First, the results show that interactivity and vividness have a significant effect on consumers’ sense of immersion. Thus, it is important for the developers and retailers to focus on the development of highly interactive and visually rich virtual environments that allow the user to interact with the virtual environment. Real-time interactions, immersive navigation, high-quality 3D product representations and extended reality (XR) technologies can enhance consumers’ sense of presence in virtual environments. This discovery builds on previous e-commerce studies that focused mainly on website usability and information quality, and now adds the role of immersive technological features in consumer experiences in the context of meta-commerce.

Second, the results show that product diagnosticity is significantly improved when the product is perceived as being immersed. This indicates that the benefits of immersive environments are not just in providing engaging experiences but also in helping consumers better assess products and understand their attributes. Therefore, managers should consider investing in advanced product visualization tools, including interactive 3D models, virtual product demonstrations, and virtual try-on technologies. These features can help consumers to examine products in greater detail, which can help to minimize uncertainty and enhance perceptions of product usefulness. In contrast to the majority of studies on e-commerce, which focused on the hedonic aspect of immersion, the present results show that immersion also brings utilitarian benefits, namely by increasing product diagnosticity.

Third, the findings suggest that enjoyment is an important factor in the use of telepresence. The results highlight the need to develop an engaging sense of presence in virtual shopping settings. Managers need to instead prioritize avatar realism, social interaction, and virtual co-presence, which would enable consumers to feel physically present in the virtual store. The present study has confirmed that telepresence is indeed a key feature of virtual environments and that it directly influences consumers’ enjoyment, further supporting its role in customer engagement and retention.

Fourth, perceived product diagnosticity was shown to significantly impact perceived usefulness. The discovery indicates that virtual environments can influence consumers’ purchasing decisions, making them more aware of the practical benefits of meta-commerce. Managers should therefore focus on technologies and design elements that help to understand and evaluate the product. Investments in detailed product information, interactive demonstrations and realistic visualizations can reinforce consumers’ perception of usefulness and, ultimately, their intentions to adopt.

Most importantly, the findings indicate that perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment both have a significant impact on consumers’ intention to use the meta-commerce platform. This discovery underscores the need to consider utilitarian and hedonic motivations in tandem for successful meta-commerce strategies. The findings of the present study show that both dimensions are equally important in the context of meta-commerce, as the majority of previous e-commerce studies have focused on usefulness as the key determinant of technology adoption, and metaverse studies have tended to focus on experiential and entertainment value. Thus, businesses should not only emphasize on the functional benefits but also on the entertainment features. Rather, they should adopt a balanced approach that merges the functionality of shopping with the fun and immersion of the experience. For instance, gamification, personalization, product exploration and social shopping can all meet consumers’ utilitarian and hedonic needs at the same time.

The results also indicate that personalization can further enhance consumers’ experiences in the context of the meta-commerce. Consumer data and analytics should be used to tailor the amount of interactivity, product presentation formats, and immersive capabilities based on user preferences and actions. By tracking these indicators, organizations can continuously improve and enhance their virtual commerce experience. Last but not least, as the concept of “meta-commerce” is still new, it is essential to invest in educational and awareness campaigns that effectively highlight the benefits of virtual shopping environments, both from a practical and experiential standpoint. These can help alleviate consumer uncertainty, aid in onboarding, and speed up the adoption of meta-commerce platforms.