An Examination of How Spending Time Together Impacts the Quality of Relationship Between Native American Stepchildren and Their Residential Stepparent

Abstract

Studies have shown that stepchildren are a vulnerable population and are at increased risk of experiencing a number of challenges. Utilizing data from the Stepfamily Experiences Project (STEP) with a focus on the Native American subsample (n = 340), this study examined how spending time together impacts the quality of relationship between Native American stepchildren and their residential stepparent. Results showed that spending time together was associated with improved parent–stepchild relationships and served as a protective factor among this Native American sample. As stepparents intentionally set aside time to interact with their stepchildren, positive relationship outcomes often occur. Additional findings and implications for clinicians are also discussed.

Keywords

divorce/separation family processes parent/child relations quantitative race/ethnicity step-families

In 2021, more than 10% of children nationwide lived in a stepfamily household (Westrick-Payne & Wiborg, 2021). Studies have shown that stepchildren are an especially vulnerable population and are at increased risk of experiencing problems adjusting academically, socially, and behaviorally when compared to children in nuclear families (Jensen et al., 2018; Jensen & Harris, 2017; Reck et al., 2020). The quality of the relationship between stepparents and stepchildren can act to mitigate these deficits and can enhance the overall well-being of the family (Ganong et al., 2022b). As a result, recent research has focused on the factors involved in creating strong bonds between residential stepparents and stepchildren (Ganong et al., 2022a, 2022b). Learning how to strengthen stepfamily relationships is important as this family structure continues to grow in the United States. Research on what contributes to strong stepparent–stepchild relationships is also expanding, including protective factors and positive processes among different populations.

While a number of studies have examined these issues generally, fewer studies have focused on people of color or other minority groups. Different social, cultural, and economic forces experienced by populations of color can affect the already difficult work of stepfamily life (Papernow, 2018). Among populations of color, Native Americans make up a small but important percentage of the U.S. population. They have unique cultural needs that should be considered by researchers and clinicians (Ward et al., 2019). Efforts to understand and encourage healthy stepfamily functioning among Native Americans can change the trajectory of generations as relationships among family members, including kin and clan members, are explored and strengthened (Burnette, Boel-Studt et al., 2020).

A growing body of research has been dedicated to identifying positive processes between residential stepparents and stepchildren, but very few studies have focused specifically on the Native American population. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how spending time together impacts the quality of relationship between Native American stepchildren and their residential stepparent. The next section discusses family systems theory and its relationship to our variables of interest.

Family Systems Theory

Family systems theory recognizes the impact the whole system as well as smaller subsystems can have on individual members (Bowen, 1966). The addition of the stepparent relationship to a family system alters family balance and can influence maladaptive behaviors in children as they adjust to this change (Jensen & Harris, 2017). To understand how to counter the potential negative effects of stepfamily formation, researchers have focused on identifying which positive behaviors and interactions initiated by residential stepparents can yield better results among stepchildren (Ganong et al., 2022b).

Native American family systems are not bound by the traditional definition of a nuclear family. Extending the definition of family to kin and tribal members expands the reach and influence of quality relationships (Ward et al., 2019; Burnette, 2018). The tribal value of close relationships has been shown to positively impact processes such as spending a lot of time with others, finding help and support, and getting along together (Martin & Yurkovich, 2014). There is value in exploring what leads to strong stepparent–stepchild relationships in the Native American population as these behaviors can strengthen tribal culture and a number of outcomes (Burnette, 2018). The next sections examine spending time together and the quality of the relationship between stepparents and their stepchildren.

Spending Time Together

Relationships between stepparents and stepchildren are developed and strengthened through time spent together (Ganong et al., 2011; King et al., 2014; Papernow, 2018). Researchers have found that spending time one-on-one builds attachment in each subsystem of the family and is one of the most influential components of quality relationships (Kutrovátz & Geszler, 2023; Papernow, 2018). Residential stepparents have many opportunities to engage in activities with their stepchildren, which has shown to enhance their relationship (Ganong et al., 2011; Jensen et al., 2018). Efforts to spend time together can strengthen stepfamily bonds.

The impact of time spent together on relationships in marginalized families is important to ascertain as well. Recent research has shown that relationships among Black and Hispanic stepfathers and their stepchildren may be strengthened through concerted efforts to spend time together (Jensen & Pace, 2016). These findings encourage further exploration of positive processes at work in stepfamilies of color.

Time spent together has also been shown to enhance Native American relationships. A recent study by Burnette, Lesesne, et al. (2020) looked at which cultural and family rituals led to close Native American families. They found that sharing meals, participating in recreational sports, dancing, and other cultural practices positively influenced the strength of family relationships. The tribal value of close relationships has also been shown to result from positive processes such as spending a lot of time with others, finding help and support, and getting along together (Burnette, 2018; Martin & Yurkovich, 2014).

Stepparent–Stepchild Relationship Quality

Spending time together tends to enhance the quality of stepfamily relationships and has far-reaching effects. Children who regard stepfamily relationships as positive and safe are more likely to have better psychological, social, and behavioral health outcomes (Jensen et al., 2018; Jensen & Lippold, 2018; King et al., 2014). Strong stepfather–stepchild relationships have been linked to reductions in depression during adolescence and into young adulthood (Jensen & Harris, 2017). Mutually enjoyable interactions between stepparents and stepchildren have been found to lead to overall stepfamily stability and satisfaction (Jensen & Harris, 2017). Stepparent–stepchild relationships are a positive tool that can help ease the transition to changes associated with family formation (Ganong et al., 2022a; Jensen & Lippold, 2018). The impact of these relationships can be seen in many facets of life.

Studies on quality relationships between stepparents and stepchildren among families of color have shown that children thrive when they feel a close bond with their residential stepparents (Jensen et al., 2018; Papernow, 2018). Examining if the impact of quality relationships in stepfamilies of color yields similar results requires further research (Jensen, 2021; Jensen & Pace, 2016). Within Native American family structures, strong relationships also result in positive outcomes. Researchers have found that relationship quality is a protective factor that comes from strong Native American family relationships (Burnette et al., 2020a, 2020b). Extending the definition of family to kin and tribal members expands the reach and influence of those close relationships (Ward et al., 2019). The quality of relationship between residential stepparents and their children may strengthen not only the immediate family but also the extended family and tribal community.

Other Factors That Impact Spending Time Together and Relationship Quality

Other factors, such as gender, age of children, and family income, may influence the quality of the relationship between residential stepparents and their stepchildren. In addition to the above-mentioned influences, the gender of the stepchild and residential stepparent may play a part in the development of a quality relationship (Jensen & Ganong, 2020). The age of the stepchild at the time of the stepfamily formation as well as how long they lived in the stepfamily might also influence relationship outcomes (Papernow, 2013, 2018). Income level is another factor that might play a part in perceived relationship quality (Jensen & Pace, 2016).

Current Study

Stepfamilies are an increasingly common family structure in the United States. The relationships formed can lead to positive or negative outcomes among the children brought into the relationship by one or both partners. Native American stepfamilies are especially vulnerable because of stresses already experienced due to low socioeconomic status, high rates of alcohol and substance use, trauma, and the prevalence of mental health disorders (Indian Health Service [IHS], 2023). A number of studies have focused more recently on identifying family processes and behaviors that lead to positive stepparent–stepchild relationship outcomes. However, there is very little research on how these processes play out in stepfamilies of color and even less research focused on Native American stepfamilies. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how spending time together impacts the quality of relationship between Native American stepchildren and their residential stepparent. It was hypothesized that increased time together would positively influence relationship quality.

Method

Participants and Procedures

This Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved study involved participants from the Stepfamily Experience Project (STEP) collected by researchers at the authors’ academic institution. Data were collected through Qualtrics, a research company based in the United States, that specializes in research collection for universities and nonprofit organizations. Participants were recruited through Qualtrics online survey panels.

Data from the STEP project included a nationally representative quota sample of emerging adults ages 18–30 who grew up in a stepfamily from ages 8–18. Respondents’ accounts were retrospective of their stepfamily experiences. The total sample consisted of 1593 individuals matched by Qualtrics to represent Census population estimates for racial and ethnic composition, with the exception of Native Americans. The STEP data included an oversampling of Native Americans (n = 340), and these respondents formed the sample for this study.

Measures

Dependent Variable

The dependent or outcome variable, residential stepparent–stepchild relationship quality, was measured using a scale adapted from the RELATE questionnaire—a relationship evaluation instrument that demonstrated adequate reliability (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86) (Busby et al., 2001). Participants were asked, “How much do you agree with the following statements about your stepfamily, based on your years growing up?”: “My residential stepparent formed a close and warm relationship with me,” “My residential stepparent was a good parent to me,” and “I was able to communicate openly and safely with my residential stepparent.” Responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree,” with higher values indicating a closer and warmer relationship. The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was 0.93, suggesting strong internal consistency.

Independent Variable

The independent or predictor variable, spending time together, consisted of three questions to measure the time that the residential stepparents spent with their stepchild: “Your residential stepparent did a fun activity with you (played games, went to a movie, etc.)?”, “Your residential stepparent tried to spend time with you?”, and “Your residential stepparent helped you with homework?” Participants responded to each item in two ways, the first regarding how their residential stepparent actually behaved and the second on how they believed they should have behaved. Respondents rated all three questions on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “Rarely/Never” to 7 = “Very Often/Always,” with higher values indicating higher amounts of time the residential stepparent actually spent with their stepchild including how much time they personally believed that their residential stepparent should have spent with them. For this study, we looked at how the respondent rated the actual amount of time their stepparent spent with them. Questions were adapted from the Stepparent Behavior Inventory (Fine et al., 1998), and the Cronbach’s alpha for the three questions selected was high (.91), indicating strong internal consistency.

Control Variables

Gender, age of the child, and household income were included as control variables. Stepchild gender was indicated as male or female. Respondents indicated residential stepparent gender by stating if they lived primarily with a stepmother or a stepfather. Respondents were asked their age when beginning the stepfamily experience and the number of years spent living in the stepfamily (0–17). Household income was assessed through self-report with options that included 11 categories: 0 = None, 1 = Under $20,000, 2 = $20,000–39,999, 3 = $40,000–59,999, 4 = $60,000–79,999, 5 = $80,000–99,999, 6 = $100,000–119,999, 7 = $120,000–139,999, 8 = $140,000–159,999, 9 = $160,000–199,999, 10 = $200,000–299,999, and 11 = $300,000 and above. For the purposes of this study, we recategorized income level into three categories, $39,999 and below, $40,000–$79,999, and $80,000 and above. The bottom category reflects the Federal Poverty Level cutoff for families of 5–6 people at $35,000–$40,000 in 2023 (HealthCare.gov, 2024).

Data Analysis

Two sets of analyses were run for this study using Stata 18. The first set of analyses involved descriptive statistics for the Native American subset for the dependent, independent, and control variables. The second set of analyses involved an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression model. The outcome variable, relationship quality, was continuous with a normal distribution, which suggested OLS (linear regression) as a suitable model. The following control variables were also included: gender of the child, gender of the residential stepparent, age of child when stepfamily formed, years spent in stepfamily, and family income. p-values of less than .05 were considered significant. The effect size was evaluated according to Cohen’s d criteria (d < .20 = weak; d = 0.20–0.79 = moderate; d > 0.80 = strong) (Cohen, 1988).

Results

Descriptive statistics for the analysis are provided in Table 1. The dependent variable, relationship quality, had a mean of 2.92 with a range of 1–5. This suggests, as a whole, respondents neither agreed nor disagreed that the relationship was closer and warmer. The independent variable, time spent together, had a mean of 3.25 with a range of 1–7. Here, respondents felt like the residential stepparent actual behavior regarding time spent together was slightly less than sometimes. The average age of respondents at formation of stepfamily was 8.56 years, and they spent approximately 10 years living in their stepfamily. A little over 70% of the residential stepparents were male and 71% of the stepchildren were female. Forty percent of stepfamilies had an income of $39,999 or below, while 38% reported an income of $40,000–$79,999. Only 20% of respondents reported an annual stepfamily income of over $80,000.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics.

	N	%	Mean (SD)	Range
Relationship quality			2.92 (1.38)	1–5
Time spent together			3.25 (1.98)	1–7
Sex of child
Male	98	28.82
Female	242	71.18
Sex of residential stepparent
Male	242	71.18
Female	97	28.53
Age of child when stepfamily formed			8.56 (4.9)	0–17
Years in stepfamily			10.10 (6.4)	0–17
Income of stepfamily while growing up
1 = up to $39,999	137	40.29
2 = $40,000–$79,999	129	37.94
3 = $80,000 and above	67	19.71

Results of the regression analysis (Table 2) indicated that time spent together significantly predicted relationship quality between residential stepparents and stepchildren (b = .54, p < .001). The effect size was large (d = .77), suggesting that increased time spent together was strongly related to higher parent–stepchild relationship quality. The age of the stepchild when the family was formed also had a significant effect on relationship quality, with a 0.03 increase in relationship quality for every one-year increase in age (d = .11, p < .01). In other words, older children at the time of stepfamily formation tended to have slightly better relationships with their residential stepparents. Lastly, stepfamily income was a significant predictor of parent-stepchild relationship quality (b = 0.14, d = .025, p < .05). The regression model explained approximately 61% of the variance in relationship quality between residential stepparents and their stepchildren, indicating that the predictors included in the model were quite effective at explaining the differences in relationship quality.

Table 2.

Regression Predicting Relationship Quality Between Residential Stepparents and Stepchildren.

	Relationship Quality	d
Time spent together	0.54***	0.77
Sex of residential stepparent	0.19	0.06
Sex of stepchild	−0.04	−0.01
Age of child when stepfamily formed	0.03**	0.11
Years lived in stepfamily	0.02	0.07
Stepfamily income while growing up	0.14*	0.08
R ²	0.61

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Discussion

This study examined how spending time together impacted the quality of the relationship between Native American stepchildren and their residential stepparent. Results revealed two patterns. First, overall findings suggest a significant relationship between spending time together and the quality of the stepparent–stepchild relationship. This finding aligns with previous research on factors that create strong stepparent–stepchild relationships in the general population (Ganong et al., 2011; Jensen et al., 2018; Martin & Yurkovich, 2014). Quality relationships between stepparents and stepchildren have been shown to ease the discomfort that comes from transitioning to stepfamily life and lead to better outcomes among children (Ganong et al., 2022a; Jensen & Lippold, 2018). This is especially salient for Native Americans whose rates of mental health disorders, substance abuse, and suicide are disproportionately higher than among the general population (IHS, 2023). Encouraging positive processes, such as spending time together, can help protect against these negative outcomes. This also fits nicely within a family systems context as promoting strong ties between stepparents and stepchildren has positive impacts on the entire family system.

Second, a number of other factors also influenced relationship quality between stepparents and stepchildren. There was a significant relationship between the age of the child when the stepfamily was formed and the quality of that relationship with their residential stepparent. This supports previous research that stepchild age when the stepfamily formed has a significant positive impact on relationship quality (Papernow, 2013, 2018); but also contradicts what others have found (Lin & Seltzer, 2024). Similarly, stepfamily income influenced relationship quality among Native Americans in this sample. Here, higher income was related to better relationship quality, although the effect size was small.

Limitations

There are several limitations to this study. First, the respondents retrospectively reported their experiences living in a stepfamily, potentially creating response bias. Data were also gathered from only one source (Qualtrics panels), introducing the potential for response error into the study. A more complete data set or combination of different datasets would include the perspectives of the stepparent, biological parent, and siblings. Because of the broad definition of family in the Native American population, focusing on only the stepfamily household limits data collection and results could be constrained to fit the traditional concept of family. This limited focus discounts the impact of spending time together on kin or other tribal relationship quality.

Implications

Despite the limitations noted above, the findings from this study have potential implications for stepfamilies, family therapists, social workers, and researchers. Clinicians working with Native American stepfamilies may consider urging stepparents to prioritize spending time with their stepchildren. Small efforts can yield positive results that act as protective factors and impact overall positive stepfamily functioning as well as child outcomes. A small effort goes a long way for positive outcomes.

These results may also encourage researchers to continue to explore evidence-based practices related to successful stepfamilies, both in the general population and specifically among Native Americans. Exploring the impact of these positive processes on relationship quality in Native American stepfamilies and in their kin relationships can expand our understanding of how to build and strengthen tribal communities, building on this family systems perspective. Here, a number of factors such as age and income can have impacts on a variety of stepfamily outcomes.

Conclusion

In response to recent research on what works to build strong stepfamily relationships in the general population, this study found that spending time together also positively impacts Native American stepfamilies. As stepparents intentionally set aside time to interact with their stepchildren, positive relationship outcomes are often the result. Simply stated, our study found that spending time together was associated with improved parent–stepchild relationships and served as a protective factor among this Native American sample. In the complex process of stepfamily formation, clear indicators like spending quality time together are valuable and can yield outcomes that extend beyond the dyad to enhance overall family and tribal life.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Gordon E. Limb

References

Bowen

(1966). The use of family theory in clinical practice. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 7(5), 345–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-440x(66)80065-2

Burnette

C. E.

(2018). Family and cultural protective factors as the bedrock of resilience and growth for Indigenous women who have experienced violence. Journal of Family Social Work, 21(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/10522158.2017.1402532

Burnette

C. E.

Boel-Studt

Renner

L. M.

Figley

C. R.

Theall

K. P.

Miller Scarnato

Billiot

(2020). The family resilience inventory: A culturally grounded measure of current and family-of-origin protective processes in native American families. Family Process, 59(2), 695–708. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12423

Burnette

C. E.

Lesesne

Temple

Rodning

C. B.

(2020). Family as the conduit to promote Indigenous women and men’s enculturation and wellness: “I wish I had learned earlier”. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 17(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/26408066.2019.1617213

Busby

D. M.

Holman

T. B.

Taniguchi

(2001). RELATE: Relationship evaluation of the individual, family, cultural, and couple contexts. Family Relations, 50(4), 308–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00308.x

Cohen

(1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge.

Fine

M. A.

Coleman

Ganong

L. H.

(1998). Consistency in perceptions of the step-parent role among step-parents, parents and stepchildren. Journal of Social & Personal Relational, 15(6), 810–828. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407598156006

Ganong

Coleman

Sanner

Berkley

(2022a). Effective stepparenting: Empirical evidence of what works. Family Relations, 71(3), 900–917. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12624

Ganong

Coleman

Sanner

Berkley

(2022b). Summary and synthesis of research on what works in stepfamily childrearing. Family Relations, 71(3), 935–952. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12674

10.

Ganong

L. H.

Coleman

Jamison

(2011). Patterns of Stepchild—Stepparent relationship development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(2), 396-413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00814.x. https://www.jstor.org.byu.idm.oclc.org/stable/29789586

11.

HealthCare.gov . (2024). Federal poverty level. U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.healthcare.gov/glossary/federal-poverty-level-fpl/

12.

Indian Health Service . (2023). Behavioral health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.ihs.gov/newsroom/factsheets/behavioralhealth/

13.

Jensen

T. M.

(2021). Patterns of interactions between youth and resident stepmothers: A latent class analysis. Family Process, 60(2), 538–555. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12556

14.

Jensen

T. M.

Ganong

L. H.

(2020). Stepparent–child relationship quality and couple relationship quality: Stepfamily household type as a moderating influence. Journal of Family Issues, 41(5), 589–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x19881669

15.

Jensen

T. M.

Harris

K. M.

(2017). Stepfamily relationship quality and stepchildren’s depression in adolescence and adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 5(3), 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696816669901

16.

Jensen

T. M.

Lippold

M. A.

(2018). Patterns of stepfamily relationship quality and adolescents’ short-term and long-term adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology: JFP: journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 32(8), 1130–1141. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000442

17.

Jensen

T. M.

Lippold

M. A.

Mills-Koonce

Fosco

G. M.

(2018). Stepfamily relationship quality and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Family Process, 57(2), 477–495. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12284

18.

Jensen

T. M.

Pace

G. T.

(2016). Stepfather involvement and stepfather–child relationship quality: Race and parental marital status as moderators. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 42(4), 659–672. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12165

19.

King

Thorsen

M. L.

Amato

P. R.

(2014). Factors associated with positive relationships between stepfathers and adolescent stepchildren. Social Science Research, 47, 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.03.010

20.

Kutrovátz

Geszler

(2023). Quality time as focused time? The role of focused parental time on the wellbeing of adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 44(11), 2936–2960. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X221113857

21.

Lin

I. F.

Seltzer

J. A.

(2024). Stepfamily variation in parent–child relationship quality in later life. Journal of Marriage and Family, 86(3), 718–737. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12946

22.

Martin

Yurkovich

(2014). “Close-knit” defines a healthy native American Indian family. Journal of Family Nursing, 20(1), 51–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074840713508604

23.

Papernow

P. L.

(2013). Surviving and thriving in stepfamily relationships: What works and what doesn’t. Routledge.

24.

Papernow

P. L.

(2018). Clinical guidelines for working with stepfamilies: What family, couple, individual, and child therapists need to know. Family Process, 57(1), 25–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12321

25.

Reck

Higginbotham

Dew

(2020). A longitudinal hierarchical examination of smart steps for stepfamilies with ethnically and economically diverse couples. Journal of Family Issues, 41(2), 183–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X19869385

26.

Ward

K. P.

Limb

G. E.

Higbee

Haueter

(2019). Stepfamily closeness and depression among American Indian emerging adults: A structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Family Issues, 40(3), 267–292. https://10.1177/0192513X18808574.

27.

Westrick-Payne

K. K.

Wiborg

C. E.

(2021). Children’s family structure, 2021. Family profiles, FP-21-26. National Center for Family & Marriage Research. https://doi.org/10.25035/ncfmr/fp-21-26