Abstract
As former graduate students in the Department of Language, Reading and Culture at the University of Arizona, we reflect on Dr Luis Moll’s profound legacy of teacher-learner reciprocity, mentorship and dedication to social justice in education. Dr Moll embodied Vygotsky’s notion of obuchenie (teaching/learning), valuing students as intellectual partners. As a mentor, his open-door policy, conversational manner and informal book club fostered academic discussions and a strong sense of community, ensuring students felt valued and supported. He advocated for and strengthened bilingual education and helped to create the Culturally Responsive Curriculum (CRC). Dr Moll’s legacy lives on through our shared memories of his humour, humility and unwavering commitment to education.
Of special interest to Vygotsky was the way that, as human beings, we fashion our nature through the mediation of others — through the appropriation of culture and its resources, which change through history (Vygotsky, 1931/1997). From such a perspective, education makes us not only what we are but who we are, and who we could become. (Moll, 2013, p. 1).
As graduate students in the Department of Language, Reading and Culture at the University of Arizona, we had the privilege of taking Dr Luis Moll’s courses and benefitting from his mentorship. In this piece, we reflect on his profound legacy through our experiences and perspectives, highlighting his commitment to teacher-learner reciprocity, his distinctive mentorship approach and his unwavering dedication to social justice in education.
Teacher-learner reciprocity
Obuchenie [обучение] is a Russian word with no single English translation. It means both teaching and learning. 1 Dr Moll believed this term essential to understanding Vygotsky’s theory of learning and development, noting that Vygotsky used the Russian word obuchenie to describe ‘. . . both the activities of students and teachers, implicating a double-sided process of teaching/learning, a mutual transformation of teacher and student’ (Moll, 1990, p. 24).
Luis Moll embodied obuchenie. Through this Vygotskian-informed practice of teacher-learner reciprocity, he engaged his students in and beyond the classroom in, as Scrimsher and Tudge (2003, p. 298) characterized it, ‘highly interactive relations involving all participants in creative activity and growth’. Engaging learners with his unique and well-known congenial, humorous and supportive manner, Dr Moll demonstrated the transformative power of positioning both himself and his students as co-learners.
Dr Moll was my [Spear Ellinwood] 2 advisor throughout my Education Specialist and doctoral programs in the Department of Language, Reading and Culture, University of Arizona College of Education. Over the five years that I worked with Dr Moll when he served as Associate Dean of Academic Affairs, we collaborated on drafting grants, co-wrote a proposal for the College of Education to be recognized as a Hispanic Serving Institution, supported the growth of the College’s educational programs and co-taught the Vygotsky and case methods courses. I have innumerable memories of him excitedly telling me about the latest article on Vygotskian thought, cultural historical activity theory and, even, biochemistry concepts such as autopoiesis (the concept of life reproducing and maintaining itself, Maturana & Varela, 1972). His main gift was to create a shared space in which we could think together, play with and debate ideas while mutually teaching and learning from one another.
One day, Dr Moll asked me to join him in the conference room in our home department, then Language, Reading and Culture (LRC). I had not heard yet that he would be presenting the 2009 AERA (American Education Research Association) Brown Lecture (Moll, 2010), but figured something important must have been happening to be working away from the Dean’s office, where we spent many hours writing grants and discussing everything Vygotskian. When I arrived, Dr Moll had print copies of various legal cases and academic articles spread around the table, his Mac iBook and a cup of coffee. He began to tell me with a mix of excitement and trepidation that he had been asked to give the Brown Lecture. Fantastic news, right? Then he explained that he had started reading Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and an earlier federal case in California, Mendez v. Westminster (1947), and he had hit a wall and needed help. Since I am also a lawyer, he figured I could teach him how to read this stuff (he used another word). He thought that Mendez should have ended segregation in public education since the Ninth Circuit decided that the school districts’ segregation plans had violated the Fourteenth Amendment due process clause.
This request underscored Dr Moll’s genuine openness to embrace learning from his students and respecting them as intellectual partners. With some, teaching the teacher can be intimidating, but Luis was so amenable to trading places that we quickly began a series of Socratic discussions on due process and legalese. I had not read Mendez, because in law school we read Brown, the United States Supreme Court having the final word. So this process turned out to be a true obuchenie moment for us both. Luis’ son Eric was in law school on campus at the time. He often stopped by to say hello and talk law. While Luis was preparing the Brown Lecture, we drew Eric into the conversations, creating a zone of proximal development for all of us. These moments created special memories for Eric and me, fully realizing how easy it was for his father to encourage his son to join in as his teacher too.
As we began to dive into the legal cases, I soon realized why anyone might feel confused about the Mendez case. The District Court had found that the school districts’ deliberate plan to segregate students based on their heritage violated the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. However, since no California law required segregation, the Ninth Circuit decided not to call into question any of the many prior cases affirming legal segregation in the public arena. That meant the fight to end segregation nationwide would have to continue and the country would have to wait for Brown.
Diving into this complex legal and educational landscape with Dr Moll and Eric was exciting. I was learning new things about this important prequel to Brown. I remember the moment we realized that key figures in Mendez were crucial to the success of Brown. Thurgood Marshall had written an amicus brief in Mendez and later argued to end segregation in Brown. Earl Warren had been the Governor of California during Mendez, and afterward signed a law forbidding California public school segregation. Later, Governor Warren became United States Supreme Court Chief Justice Warren and wrote the opinion in Brown, incorporating much of Marshall’s arguments, particularly the principle that ‘separate educational facilities are inherently unequal’. Dr Moll experienced grief, surprise and joy while learning why and how Mendez became the cornerstone of Brown and felt compelled to incorporate this knowledge as well as members of the Mendez family into his now well-respected 2009 AERA Brown Lecture.
Dr Moll was a member of my [Siegel] dissertation committee. I also completed several of his courses. My experiences illustrate another example of teacher-learner reciprocity. Among the many concepts I learned from Dr Moll, his work on immigration and education in the United States and the concept of Funds of Knowledge resonated with me most profoundly. These ideas directly informed and shaped my dissertation research.
My dissertation, titled Narratives of Compassion and Heartache: Teachers’ Everyday Professional Struggles with English-Only Policy in an Elementary School in a Southwest Border Community (Siegel, 2012), was an ethnographic case study. The research examined the professional experiences of elementary school teachers through classroom observations, interviews and informal conversations. At the time of data collection, Arizona teachers were experiencing severe challenges compared to teachers in other states, including lower per-student expenditures, reduced salaries, higher teacher–student ratios and a growing number of English-language learners. The teachers at the school where I conducted my research faced additional concerns, such as high student mobility, low socioeconomic status among students and the complexities of language development.
Furthermore, the implementation of Arizona’s English-only policy restricted teachers to using Spanish for no more than 10% of instructional time. My study explored teachers’ compassion and commitment to their profession, as well as the professional distress they experienced in their everyday teaching practice. The narratives and analyses in my dissertation were significantly influenced by Dr Moll’s teachings, particularly seeing elementary school teachers’ emphasis on recognizing students’ Funds of Knowledge. The study critically questioned whether school excellence and teacher quality can be solely measured by student test scores and what being a ‘highly qualified teacher‘ truly means to students and local communities. It also highlighted the power of local educators in negotiating and developing federal and state educational policies to better meet the needs of their students.
During my dissertation defense, after asking several research-related questions, he posed a thought-provoking question to the audience, including committee members: ‘What do you think would happen if there were no immigrants starting tomorrow?’ Rather than seeking a definitive or binary response, he emphasized that complex issues such as immigration cannot be reduced to simple answers. His goal was to foster open dialogue and invite a range of perspectives, underscoring his belief that learning is a collaborative and reciprocal process, regardless of academic rank. What followed was a small yet intellectually rich discussion — a form of community learning that drew upon both academic and personal insights, allowing participants to collectively seek new understandings through shared reflection.
A unique approach to mentorship
Dr Moll amplified much of our learning through conversation and cafecitos (chatting over coffee). His unique approach to mentoring epitomized confianza (mutual trust), a core principle of Funds of Knowledge theory. He had a delightful sense of humour, both self-deprecating and playful — manifesting an intent to put students at ease and invite them to engage in dialogue, test ideas and ask questions.
As a mentor, Dr Moll fostered an environment that encouraged intellectual curiosity, exploration and academic growth for any student, not only those he taught in classes or who were assigned to him as advisees. His mentorship extended beyond the classroom. When I [Siegel] attended a conference, I witnessed that he actively connected students with other scholars, by inviting me and other LRC students to dinner with him and his colleagues. The profound and enduring impact of Dr Moll’s compassionate style of mentoring was clear as we learned that these scholars, often his former graduate students, remained eager to continue the conversation with him and to embrace his new mentees.
Dr Moll’s book club exemplified his dedication to fostering critical thought and dialogue and nurturing intellectual growth beyond the traditional classroom setting. Students from the LRC Department, including me [Siegel], were invited to join these gatherings, which took place at a local coffee shop in the late afternoons. The group met weekly, typically reading and discussing one chapter at a time. I recall feeling deeply privileged to have the opportunity to engage with Dr Moll in this informal setting and consider these experiences invaluable to my academic and personal development.
Dr Moll maintained an open-door policy, welcoming students not only for academic discussions but also for personal guidance and support. He was deeply invested in his students’ success, consistently offering advice, encouragement and mentorship. As an international student, I [Siegel] especially appreciated his unwavering dedication to building a strong sense of community within the LRC department, ensuring the students felt valued and supported. Whenever I visited during his office hours, he always asked me how I was doing, if I had any concerns on and off campus and how my family members in Japan were doing. We both fondly remember Dr Moll’s presence at LRC community events — such as the LRC potluck — where he engaged warmly with students and colleagues in informal, meaningful conversations with an enjoyable blend of tertulia 3 and humour.
The concept of Funds of Knowledge — which is highlighted throughout this volume — was central to Dr Moll’s work and approach. He continually reminded us of the importance of the rich cultural knowledge and lived experiences we each bring into the academic space. Dr Moll was always excited to learn about students’ backgrounds and helped us recognize that our community and household experiences are not only relevant but vital to our learning and teaching. Today, we view our time in the LRC as part of our own Funds of Knowledge, carrying it with us as a treasured foundation in our personal and professional lives.
Dr Moll effortlessly modelled the importance of family even at work. During my [Spear Ellinwood’s] time in the Associate Dean’s office with Dr Moll, his sons were students or working on campus and would make impromptu visits. Dr Moll always made time for them, and as they talked about things they were learning, he showed genuine curiosity and interest. He frequently commented about how they were teaching him new things. In my family life, I find myself often becoming the learner with my adult children, whether it’s learning something about public health, areas of law with which I am not familiar or how multi-language development and teaching is done in Europe. I learn just for the pleasure of learning something new, but I also have sought their counsel on a variety of things, including how to build rapport with today’s youth when I was returning in my sixties to teach middle-schoolers.
Dr Moll also entrusted me [Spear Ellinwood] to teach my peers in the Vygotsky and Education and Case Methods courses. Though I felt nervous and not expert enough, he had zero hesitation and total confianza. I appreciated his guidance in preparing each week through informal instructional conversations. So, in my current professional life, when my students present investigative projects, I encourage them to think of themselves as teachers and invite a conversation with classmates. I have enjoyed watching sixth-graders explain the history of cuneiform and why the ‘alluvial sand’ of Mesopotamia was ideal for creating clay tablets, and classmates who studied the Code of Hammurabi making connections with how written language informed people about the law.
My [Siegel’s] experiences as a student in the LRC program have become an integral part of my personal Funds of Knowledge, significantly influencing both my professional and personal lives. Professionally, in my current role as Interim Associate Vice Provost for Institutional Research and Effectiveness at Western University of Health Sciences, I consistently emphasize the integration of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. I believe that, whenever possible, it is essential to include narratives alongside numerical data to provide a more holistic understanding of participants’ perspectives and the ways in which they make sense of their experiences.
On a personal level, as my husband and I raise our twins, I remain acutely aware of the concept of Funds of Knowledge and its implications for their development. In our efforts to raise them bilingually and biliterately in English and Japanese, I have made a conscious commitment to consistently speak Japanese with them and to intentionally expose them to Japanese culture. Their Japanese heritage constitutes a significant component of their own Funds of Knowledge. Creating a home environment that embraces both American and Japanese cultural identities has been essential to nurturing their growth and cultural understanding.
Social justice in education
At the heart of Dr Moll’s scholarship, teaching and advocacy was an enduring dedication to social justice in education. His committed collaboration to developing with colleagues the Funds of Knowledge theory provided graduate students, teachers and families opportunities to reflect on the important role of families and communities in the classroom and significantly influenced bilingual and bicultural educational programs.
Some of the early studies on Funds of Knowledge theory were conducted in bilingual schools in Tucson. The ethnographic approach involving teachers and graduate students in the research helped to cultivate a community in which they learned from one another as they learned from students and families, ultimately informing teaching practices and cultivating an even more closely connected school culture (González et al., 2005). One of the major bilingual school sites stands out as a successful school community with close family connections and a waiting list each year. Years after conducting that research, Dr Moll and I [Spear Ellinwood] nominated Alfredo Valenzuela, the mariachi instructor for nearly 40 years at a local bilingual program, for an honorary doctorate in music education. I shared my experience as the mom of an eight-year-old mariachi watching Dr Valenzuela encourage her and her fellow students to sing and play an instrument for the first time, while Dr Moll imbued the letter with the long view, highlighting Mr Valenzuela’s critical role in enriching the lives of multiple generations of students and considering the pride this award would instill in the of the broader Tucson mariachi family and bilingual academic communities who celebrated this honor. When the University of Arizona awarded the doctorate to this beloved teacher, it was an act of social justice. The local community has ever since called him Dr V.
For Dr Moll, discussing social justice was not an afterthought. He grounded his Funds of Knowledge research and teaching in the reality of his graduate students who were teaching learners in public schools from marginalized communities. In his Brown Lecture, Dr Moll highlighted that work being done in public education in historically marginalized communities emphasized the importance of mobilizing culture to understand how people ‘live culturally’ and use processes and resources to mediate learning; mobilizing languages to facilitate bilingualism and biliteracy; and mobilizing practices including developing ‘all sorts of alliances among peers, families, teachers and the ethnic/cultural community. . . to support academic development’ (Moll, 2010, pp. 451–460). This is a critical outcome of social justice in education.
Dr Moll promoted the work of the Social Justice in Education Project (SJEP) by his colleague Julio Cammarota, PhD and LRC graduate students, including Chiara Cannella, PhD. 4 Dr Moll’s Brown Lecture regarded this project as an excellent example of mobilizing educational practices. Cannella’s dissertation focused on high school students who identified and studied issues affecting the quality of their education and school environment. Participants presented their work at The University of Arizona and the AERA annual meeting and advocated to the district for substantial improvements to their school environment and experiences. Cannella sought to explore ‘how to support young people in their work to construct more agentive social identities’ (Cannella, 2009, pp. 161–162). Dr Moll’s excitement about this work and the SJEP overall showed in his curiosity to learn from these young researchers and their fresh perspectives and in encouraging his graduate students to do the same.
I [Spear Ellinwood] am one of many Tucson Unified School District (TUSD) teachers who strive to carry forward Dr Moll’s vision for the Culturally Responsive Curriculum (CRC). The CRC program emerged from a legal battle between TUSD educators in the Mexican American Studies (MAS) program and the Arizona State Superintendent for Education. Arizona law permitted the superintendent to reduce school district funding by 10% if they found that a district offered courses advocating ‘ethnic solidarity’, promoting ‘resentment toward a race or class of people’, were ‘designed primarily for pupils of a particular ethnic group’ or ‘to promote the overthrow of the U.S. government’ (See A.R.S. § 15–112). Without having observed any of Tucson Unified School District’s MAS classes, the state superintendent found that the school district violated the statute and eliminated the program altogether, even though ‘[t]aking MAS classes is consistently, significantly and positively related to increased student academic achievement, and this relationship grows stronger the more classes students take’ (Cabrera et al., 2014, p. 1107). I remember that those days Dr Moll frequently commented on how this situation required a real and persevering remedy. Ultimately, Dr Moll, as a member of the National Panel on Culturally Responsive Curriculum and Instruction, played a key role in shaping a district-wide social justice curriculum, embodied in the current Culturally Responsive Curriculum (CRC) program (see National Panel on Culturally Responsive Curriculum and Instruction, 2016; TUSD CRC Multi-Year Expansion Plan, 2015). The CRC program trains new and experienced public school teachers in culturally responsive teaching practices and creates a space for students to engage in participatory action research and for participating teachers to share ideas and lessons, as well as providing support for implementing curriculum and time off for lesson-planning.
As a professional in institutional research within higher education, I [Siegel] believe that the role of institutional research extends beyond compliance reporting and serves as a powerful tool for advancing social justice. Institutional research can support data-informed decision-making by systematically identifying inequities through data analysis and communicating these findings to institutional leadership. Furthermore, it plays a critical role in documenting how the institution engages in continuous improvement by implementing actions to address disparities and promote equity across the campus community.
Final reflections
Dr Luis Moll’s impact as a scholar, mentor and advocate continues to resonate deeply with those who had the privilege of learning with him. His embodiment of obuchenie — a reciprocal process of teaching and learning — transformed every interaction into an opportunity for mutual growth. Whether he was co-teaching a course, preparing a landmark lecture, supporting a student’s dissertation or engaging in informal cafecito conversations, Dr Moll approached each moment with humility, curiosity and heartfelt care.
At the core of his approach was a deep respect for students as intellectual partners. He understood that knowledge was not held solely by the professor but co-constructed through dialogue and shared inquiry. His mentorship extended beyond the classroom, fostering a culture of confianza and critical reflection that empowered students to see their cultural and lived experiences as sources of insight and strength.
Dr Moll’s work around Funds of Knowledge fundamentally reshaped the way we think about families, communities and the educational process. He challenged deficit-based perspectives and championed a vision of schooling grounded in dignity, respect and justice. His tireless commitment to educational equity — whether through theoretical contributions, school partnerships or policy engagement — left an enduring imprint on the field of education.
We carry forward Luis Moll’s legacy not only in our scholarship and teaching but also in living by the values he modelled daily: intellectual humility, cultural responsiveness, compassion and an unwavering belief in the power of community.
We agree, our nature has been cultivated ‘through the mediation of others’, many special professors and mentors in LRC including Dr Luis Moll, and this ‘makes us not only what we are but who we are, and who we could become’ (Moll, 2013, p. 1). We are not alone. We are two voices in a global diaspora of colleagues and protegidas. 5 Our time in the Department of Language, Reading and Culture (LRC) with Dr Moll’s guidance and mentorship has become part of our own Funds of Knowledge, shaping who we are as educators, scholars and human beings. And for that, we are forever thankful.