A pile of drums: Putting theory into practice in culturally diverse music education

Introduction

In the spring of 2016, I was hired at an international school to teach music grades 6 to 12. This would be my seventh international school, having worked in schools in Taiwan, Colombia, Syria, Malaysia, Singapore, and Holland. I had just completed a PhD focused on engaging students in culturally diverse music, an approach which had underpinned my work for 25 years. The research I conducted had opened my eyes to scholarly perspectives on the subject, how other teachers were integrating culturally diverse music into their programs, and how different educators perceived and promoted student engagement. My new job was an excellent opportunity to be teaching music from a culturally diverse perspective again; this time through the lens of what I had examined and what had emerged in my research.

The school, however, was facing challenges. By August of 2016 when I arrived, enrolment had dropped from 600 students to just less than 350, mainly due to political uncertainty in the host country. Morale was low, with a sense of uncertainty among students and families. This triggered my first goal: to get students involved in making and sharing music as quickly as possible to strengthen the sense of community. My second goal emerged from the first, as I witnessed a lack of multicultural perspective in the school: I aimed to instill a more global outlook toward music. Because of my belief in the benefits of teaching music from a culturally diverse perspective, I chose to ground both goals in musical diversity and plurality. The third goal, that of interdisciplinary experiences, will appear in a following article.

I have discussed the benefits of teaching music from a culturally diverse perspective extensively in previous publications (Cain, Lindblom, & Walden, 2013; Cain & Walden, 2018; Walden, 2014; Walden, 2016a). At this point in my career, after doing PhD research and having worked with many music teachers, it feels timely to document two of the approaches I take toward cultural diversity: what they look like in practice, and in particular, in a challenging situation. It provides teachers with examples of how approaches can be generated and sustained.

In this article, I take a personal, academic, and professional look at my experience over 2 years, from the completion of PhD research to implementing goals based on this research. The underlying question that anchors the work is, “Can the integration of culturally diverse music in a challenging environment help build community and instill global awareness and appreciation in students?” The approach is mainly autoethnographic, which is outlined by Holman Jones, Adams, and Ellis (2016), and Hughes and Pennington (2017), as a method that incorporates the value of personal experience and its importance in understanding culture, the researcher’s role in the process to explain or justify, and the use of a structure that appeals to a variety of readers. Underpinned by the key areas and concepts in my research and research in the field and examination of student perspectives, and shifting from scholarly writing to practical implementation, this article focuses on the integration of culturally diverse music as a means to build community and inculcate global competency.

Methodology

The research that spanned over 2 years was based on an autoethnographic methodology. I gathered information through observation, regular diary entries, conversations with community members, personal reflection following units, interviews with students, and reflective writing by students. As this information was collected, it was analyzed to identify themes, key concepts, patterns, preferences voiced by students, and areas to further explore during and after the research. Participants included 42 students in total, in music classes Grades 7 to 10, and the World Drum Club (Grades 5–8). Faculty and parent community members who contributed to the research numbered 26. Results and discussions are integrated into the following sections of this article. These are followed by recommendations and conclusions in the final section.

Building a sense of community

A sudden change in enrolment can be difficult for students (Amos, 2007; Rahm, 2011). The unexpected drop that occurred in August 2016 at my new school was accompanied by a decrease in overall morale and a sense of uncertainty. Sensing a need for community involvement and considering that “Culture and the arts have been identified as key elements of community development strategies to promote community solidarity” (Mayo, McAliskey, & Mbugua, 2008, p. 13), my first step was to bring the school together through informal performances put together by students. In my experience, bringing people together in musical ensembles can tap into individual and mutual interests, motivate musical expression, and create a venue for contributing musical ideas across generations and cultures. The experience reinforces that music-making and musical creativity are open to all, music brings people together, music creates a sense of belonging and purpose, and music celebrates diversity of expression (Campbell, 2018; Donovan & Pascale, 2012). Establishing a notion of shared values, sustained musical appreciation, and connection through diverse music reinforces the idea that “community” can exist within a school. It can act as a foundation for building a culture of diversity and extend to the surrounding community as an expression of school diversity and lifetime involvement in, and enjoyment of, the arts.

As I got to know my students, I also sensed disenchantment with the rigidity of the previous music curriculum. Choices had been exclusively Western-based, with formal instruction practices. Spruce (2016) articulates the sentiment:

Restricting the curriculum to one that is underpinned exclusively by the “aesthetic ideology” can result in a curriculum that is narrow and over-specialized and within which many students “fail.” This leads inevitably to disillusionment with curriculum music. (p. 29)

One of the challenges was to instill a fundamental joy of music along with a sense of accomplishment in each ensemble. Davies (2012) writes, “If we can bring our students into an exciting and different setting then any work that goes on will be enhanced” (p. 14). This was my motivation and incentive: to introduce something that would capture interest within the community and build enthusiasm in classes through diverse, shared experiences in music. The second aspect will be discussed in the section on global competency (given below).

In practice, facilitating a sense of community can be realized through informal musical events around the school. Simplicity was key: no amplification, instruments that were loud and would catch people’s attention, and in settings that required little setup. I began with an ensemble called the “World Drum Club.” Time was important—I aimed to have students performing within the first 2 weeks of school. I advertised through word of mouth, speaking with students in my music classes, taking a few drums to student assemblies, and putting up posters. Interest was sufficient enough to create a 10-member ensemble of enthusiastic students, Grades 5 to 8. Drums work very well in this situation: students are able to imitate and combine rhythms quickly and be performance-ready within a short time. Many aerophones and chordophones require weeks to months of practice before students feel ready to play them for an audience.

Practice sessions were held after school, once per week. With focused rehearsals, students in a drum group can be ready to perform after 2 to 3 rehearsal sessions. Instruction in the group was completely by aural transmission. Students learned techniques, rhythms, sequential patterns, and some improvisation from diverse cultures, playing both culturally traditional instruments and substituted instruments. They discussed what rhythms they would like to learn and when and where they would perform (courtyards, foyer, hallways, meeting rooms). I began with simple rhythm patterns and slowly added polyrhythms on West African djembes. It is often my preference to start with djembes, as they are accessible and easy to make a sound on, and there are many transcriptions available. I have included some beginner patterns in Appendix 1, as well as an online resource that provides excellent examples and further transcriptions.

The first World Drum Club performance occurred in the school foyer as people arrived at school and featured West African, Malaysian, and Brazilian rhythms. The atmosphere was informal, lively, and met with some surprise. Comments included the following:

–That was awesome! What a great way to start the day! Thanks. (English teacher, personal email communication, 27 September 2016)

–Dear MS Drummers, Wow! You were amazing, and you gave so much energy and spirit to the beginning of the school day . . . (Principal, personal email communication, 27 September 2016)

These presentations were not polished performances with flawless technique and without mistakes, nor did they take place in a formal performance area. The essential idea was that students prepared music and shared it in an informal setting, and in doing so helped to bring teachers, administration, parents, and students together. With an enthusiastic group of drummers, we continued to play every few weeks. Sometimes people were inspired to dance as the students played. With these performances, I observed the following:

The information gathered from discussions with drum students, comments from faculty, and observations during performances was recorded and analyzed as part of the overall empirical data. As can be seen from above in the seven listed observations, patterns were already emerging as students in the drum club performed their first series of informal presentations.

Community building can begin with something as uncomplicated as these informal performances: “Since time immemorial, music has been made by and with communities in order to express local identities, traditions, values, beliefs, aspirations, and social interactions” (Higgins & Bartleet, 2018, p. 2). I noticed a sense of trust emerging between players and audience, as students expanded their performance spaces. McCombs (2004) articulates, “Healthy learning communities have the further defining qualities of acceptance of, room for, and honoring of all diverse views” (p. 35).

Once the Drum Club students experienced positive reactions to their informal presentations, they were enthusiastic to continue throughout the year. Students (and myself included) were eager to expand their knowledge of rhythms from different countries: we added two Venezuelan rhythm patterns, watching video footage and finding transcriptions online. Students listened to patterns of the East Indian dhol and imitated these on the drums we had available. The group played during recess and lunch times, accompanied art shows, sporting events, and just about wherever some lively percussion music was welcomed.

In keeping with the momentum of building community through informal performances, I turned to my classroom ensembles: concert bands and choirs. Jellison (2015) recognizes that, “Teachers can structure numerous age-appropriate experiences and provide frequent opportunities for all students to learn and practice performing in small ensembles in various informal contexts” (p. 48). Approximately once every 3 to 4 weeks, students visited other classrooms and performed a piece they had learned. Sometimes audience participation was possible, and performing students would hand out small percussion instruments to the younger children. The performing ensembles were small, considering the limited enrolment; however, these informal visits proved positive in terms of building community and teamwork. Teachers and kids were happy with each visit. For ease of organization, ensembles performed only during their scheduled class time. Basically, when a piece was ready to perform, we gave classroom teachers a few days’ warning and then went from class to class, performing one or two pieces. Classes in each grade level looked forward to ensemble visits, and performers were eager to play. Comments from students include the following:

I wasn’t expecting that in Choir I would be given the opportunity to make friends in the music community. (Grade 10 student, 2018)

We had to work in teams. I believe that these lessons made the class even more close and confident. I also enjoyed that we learned from our mistakes without feeling embarrassed . . . (Grade 10 student, 2018)

It served as training for working in a group as opposed to individually. (Grade 9 student, 2018)

The only way to be performing with a choir is by working with each other as team to make sure everyone is on pitch and on the same page with the notes, the same as a group project for any other subject at school, we learn how to work in a group to make awesome things. (Grade 9 student, 2018)

I like when everybody gets together doing different beats and creating a type of music. I enjoy learning about music all around the world and the origins of music nowadays. (Grade 8 student, 2018)

These responses reflected the majority of comments written by 38 students. In fact, through further conversation in class, it became evident that students preferred to share their musical accomplishments in smaller settings where they could experience reactions of the audience more closely.

As I discussed in my research (Walden, 2016b), community building events within the school can range from very informal to highly organized, single grade or multi-grade, and when possible, include teachers. Examples of these include the following:

“Community” also means looking at what is in place and building on it. Bartleet, Bennet, Power, and Sunderland (2018) promote inculcating a sense of who can offer what: “focusing on the ‘social, physical, environmental, and human’ assets of a community promotes respect for community members as capable agents and partners . . .” (p. 656). McKnight and Block (2010) claim, “When we choose to make visible the gifts of those around us, we discover several things . . .” (p. 122). They explain further that

The culture of community is initiated by people who value each other’s gifts . . . It takes time, because [serious] relationships are based upon trust, and trust grows from the experience of being together in ways that make a difference in our lives. (McKnight & Block, 2010, pp. 116, 117)

Schippers (2010) furthers this sentiment, stating, “music builds on structures and enculturation processes that are naturally supported in the community (as opposed to superimposed)” (p. 97). Already in place as extracurricular ensembles at the school were a Latin jazz group (students) and a local folk music group (students and adults). The former had functioned as its own entity with separate concerts; however, with the aim to diversify the musical experience for the community, the jazz group was included in formal and informal concerts. The folk group, made up of local and expatriate faculty, staff, and students, plays traditional music from the host country. Some members in the past have been professional musicians who remain active with their music and are welcoming and patient with newcomers. Playing in their ensemble is an invaluable experience in learning the nuances and characteristics of local music genres. This resonates with Campbell (2004), who advises teachers to “Study unfamiliar music cultures by . . . tapping into the expertise of local musicians, culture-bearers, and scholars as resources” (p. 14). Playing in the folk group is challenging and certainly worth every moment of learning. The group performs throughout the year at different functions, with a repertoire that includes genres such as joropo, salsa, merengue, aguinaldo, vallenato, and gaita.

Hoy and Johnson (2013) recognize that “Community engagement and community-based learning has the power and potential to redefine pedagogy” (p. 17). This is what began to occur: focus on bringing diverse music into the school community through informal events, building a sense of community through these events, and the inclusion of the local community’s musical talents formed a basis for extending and broadening musical diversity within music classes. This will be discussed further in the last section of this article.

Inculcating global perspectives—the classroom environment

In August 2016, I walked into a bare classroom with a plan. As many educators understand, the basic organization and design of a teaching space send strong messages to students. Classrooms that display Western-based instruments, musicians, vocabulary, and resources project a Eurocentric point of view. If the intention is to create a sense of diversity, then displays should include music, dance, architecture, terminology, and artwork from around the world. Students should be aware of the Sachs–Hornbostel instrument classification system: aerophones, chordophones, membranophones, and idiophones. One of the first things I did was unpack the many drums I had shipped to the school and place them in part of my teaching space. These were made easily accessible to students, were played frequently during class sessions, and became affectionately known as the “pile of drums.” Students in each music class have had the opportunity to learn about the drums and play them on a regular basis. The drums are used during breaks from other activities, for cross-discipline projects, as enhancements to band/choir arrangements, for performance ensembles, and for students to explore. Often students run to the instruments when it is drumming time.

Terminology and how we talk about music also send messages. If students hear exclusively about Western-based genres, then this becomes the norm and any other music may be assumed as “other.” The terms teachers choose can unknowingly exclude entire genres. In my research, I found that while some scholars support the inclusion of conceptual elements such as melody, rhythm, form, and texture (Blair & Kondo, 2008; Nettl, 1992; Swanwick, 1988), others caution the use of these terms without sufficient context (Jorgensen, 1998; Wiggins, 1992). My perspective appears in a previous publication:

A conceptual elements framework, already familiar to music teachers following a Western curriculum, refers to studies in rhythm and beat, melody, form/structure, tone colour, and texture. I use “texture” as opposed to “harmony” to ensure that all music cultures are included, not just those based on Western harmonic foundations. (Walden, 2014)

I have these conceptual elements posted on the classroom wall as guidelines for musical discussion. The one simple change from “harmony” to “texture” ensures that genres that do not include the Western concept of harmony are not excluded. Although every culture may not use these terms in exact translation, it is a starting point, a point of familiarity for students, and it gets them talking about music analytically (as opposed to, “It’s cool,” or, “I don’t like it”).

To further prompt discussion, I post on the wall: “How do we talk about music?” “Tell us about your music,” “Musicians we know, and what they do,” and “What’s on your playlist?” Not only do these help initiate conversation about music but they also provide insight into individual preferences. “Cultural competence in the classroom,” state Lind and McKoy (2016), “requires that we get to know our students, learn about their goals and aspirations, and understand what they bring to the classroom” (p. 85). The effort required to do this is minimal, but makes big differences to students. They feel heard, valued, and integral to the group as a contributing musician.

Global perspectives and pedagogical choices

Regular, informal music performances, with extracurricular groups or regularly scheduled classes, open up opportunities for different styles of learning. This is described in an approach for which I advocated in a previous publication—one that includes non-formal learning using the integration of culturally diverse music:

music education would be more culturally inclusive were it to look beyond didactic, Western based music learning. By incorporating programs that focus on non-formal learning practices, educational institutions are opening up the scope of music to more learning styles, genres of music, student preferences, and enrolment in music classes. Furthermore, considering some non-Western musical genres are transmitted through non-formal learning practices, and many without notation [aural transmission], then the inclusion of appropriate culturally diverse musical genres presents a viable pedagogical route toward the goal of more non-formal music learning experiences in our schools. (Walden, 2017)

In my current school, this route meant immersing students in a completely new pedagogy. They explored their own choices, engaged in music from different cultures, and experienced different learning methods. “Providing opportunities for young people to engage with music on its own terms,” writes Spruce (2016), “means that they are able to demonstrate their own musical knowledge, skills, and understanding through means other than the skills exemplified through Western musical practices” (p. 29). This appeared to ring true for many students. Comments like the following appeared in exit interviews:

I really like that we play songs that originate in different parts of the world and that we play/sing different styles of music. I like learning about different beats and rhythms. I find it interesting how one small change can affect a lot (like the subtle differences with reggae, reggaeton, and vallenato). I also liked that we used a variety of instruments and drums from very different places (Venezuela, Middle east, Africa, southeast Asia, etc). (Grade 10 student)

I got to learn not only one, but parts of many instruments and explored where they were from and how they work. I really liked the options we got as we could also choose the instruments we wanted to play. I also liked how we got to incorporate the drums into the songs we performed. We also learned how the rhythms of different genres went by playing them on drums, which made it easier to understand, and I also liked how we did that. (Grade 9 student)

I learned about culture by many ways. Mostly looking at their instruments and their stories/background. (Grade 10 student)

[I learned] How each culture has their own music or their own remix to their scales and music. I learned that music in different cultures means different things. I also learned that music around the world is really different, thus when I hear it I enjoy it a lot (even tho I wasn’t born learning how to play that type of music). (Grade 9 student)

These comments represent 4 of 33 responses. Each response was examined and coded according to reference to cross-discipline connections, recognition of diverse cultures being studied, details learned about cultures, ways to talk about music, and basic enjoyment (coded under “fun,” “like,” “love,” and “enjoy”).

How did implementation of a global perspective occur? An important consideration in music education is notation. Although there are many notation and transmission systems in music, most students with whom I have worked assume that “written” music means notes on a five-line staff. It is encouraging to see many researchers recognizing that “musical literacy” does not imply simply the ability to read Western staff notation (Fautley, 2013; Kwami, 2001; Lind & McKoy, 2016; Schippers, 2010; Spruce, 2016; Swanwick, 2001). As articulated by Spruce (2016), “The emphasis on staff notation as a process of decoding pre-existent musical scores has led us to ignore, and consequently fail to teach, the many other ways in which notation is used in the musical world” (p. 26).

In general music classes, different notation systems can be seamlessly integrated into lessons; however, how can music teachers approach this in typical choir and band ensembles? In concert band classes, I remind students frequently that music written for most concert bands and choirs is referred to as Western (or “staff”) notation, while some music is written in systems such as cipher notation, sargam notation, types of iconic and graphic notation, and that some is transmitted completely aurally. It is vital students understand that no one transmission system is superior or inferior to another. One way to begin familiarizing band and choir students with different notation systems and scale sounds is with warmups.

The first step is to teach basic cipher notation. With choir, have students sing a Western diatonic scale ascending and descending: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 . . . For bands, sing, “One two three four five six seven eight . . .,” and have students play back the sequence. For both choir and band, practice different sequences of notes, each sequence lead by the instructor and echoed by the students. When students are comfortable with the number system, they are ready to learn new scales:

· Japanese scales (hirajoshi pentatonic: 1 2 3♭ 5 6♭)

     (kumoi pentatonic: 1 2♭ 4 5 6♭)

· Sundanese scale (1 3 4 5 7)

· Chinese pentatonic scale (1 2 3 5 6)

· Indian ragas (bilawal, similar to Western diatonic scale: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7)

     (khamaj: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7♭)

· Arabic maqam (rast: 1 2 3half♭ 4 5 7half♭)

With choir classes, I have students sing patterns using different notation systems. For example, students sing a Western diatonic scale using cipher notation (numbers), followed by the same scale using solfege syllables, then sargam notation: sa, re, ga, ma, pa, da, ni, sa (and descending). It does not take long for students to be singing material using more than one notation system.

To be truly diverse in music education, what students see and hear should reflect a global perspective. If not, in Hoffman’s (2012) words, we “implicitly teach our students that some musical heritages, some stories, are privileged while others are not included in our curriculum” (p. 65). I ground my approach with this in mind and reinforce diversity in each lesson. Students may not be experts in each notation system, but they know that different systems exist. They learn that cultures use their own terms (language) to describe their music: terms that may be very different from those with which students are familiar. Students become aware that learning to talk about their own musical preferences serves as a basis for learning how others talk about perhaps a very different style of music.

After each semester, I had students complete exit interviews (responses also seen above), answering a number of questions: Was there anything you learned that you were not expecting to learn? What activities did you like most in class? In what ways did performing help you with other subjects? What do you feel you learned about cultures in music class? What changes would you recommend for the music program? Many of the responses revealed the impact of their new experience, including the following:

I learned about music from different cultures when playing different scales including the pentatonic scale, the Japanese scale, and even the blues scale. (Grade 10 concert band student, 2018)

We have played a lot of scales from different countries and cultures and sometimes we are told stories about the origins of songs or the artists. (Grade 9 concert band student, 2018)

I never expected to learn any Asian scales like the pentatonic, Hira[j]yoshi and many others. (Grade 10 concert band student, 2018)

Conclusions and recommendations

I walked into a teaching situation where declining enrolment had fragmented the sense of community and limited music curriculum choices had weakened enthusiasm for classroom-taught music. Two of my goals were to rejuvenate a sense of community through music, and a sense of enjoyment and cultural awareness in music-making, both through the integration of culturally diverse music. Changing the situation required something that would grab people’s attention, demonstrate quickly the benefits of community immersed in music, and include a plan for follow-through and reflection. It meant encouraging the school community to play music for the community and to let go of the idea that performances are successful only if they are formal and flawless. It included fostering an overall appreciation for the vast variety of music in our world through active engagement in different genres and the inclusion of student preferences.

My choice to underpin my approach with culturally diverse music was based on my beliefs and research in the benefits of musical diversity in education. With more diverse choices and activities in music, students developed an awareness of cultures, had opportunities to play and perform using a large variety of world percussion instruments, and learned to appreciate similarities and differences within their own cultures. Referring back to the original question, “Can the integration of culturally diverse music in a challenging environment help build community and instill global awareness and appreciation in students?” I feel significant changes occurred. A substantial majority of participating students voiced increased awareness of cultures and enjoyment of musical experiences. Through student voice and the administration’s commitment to supporting all music activities within the school, the community experienced ways to bring itself more closely together. The reaction from the parent community, school faculty, and students, through conversation, emails, and observation, reinforced that a sense of community was certainly developing through music.

My recommendations for further research are to examine how engagement in culturally diverse music can enrich, and be a catalyst for, cross-disciplinary learning. Furthermore, I recommend that (a) music teacher training institutions provide more instruction in culturally diverse genres integrated into the instructional program, (b) music teachers actively seek out opportunities to learn music from the world’s cultures, and (c) administrators encourage and support global awareness in music programs. There are many resources available to teachers and administrators and today’s classrooms certainly reflect diversity.

As I reflect on my third year, the challenges continue, with low enrolment, small ensemble sizes, and political uncertainty; however, one thing that remains certain, constant, and ready for musical exploration is the much loved pile of drums.