The musical actions of mobile youth

Research context

The study was designed in 2018 to provide insights into how music education could play a role in shaping the social and emotional adaptation of immigrant youth in Canada, contributing to both the practice of music education and the broader field of immigrant and refugee studies. The Youth Music Program (YMP) was conceived in 2016 as a music program offered “for students of immigrant and refugee backgrounds who recently arrived in Canada” (Ocádiz, 2023, p. 60), and was implemented and developed in collaboration with organizations that offered settlement services between 2016 and 2018 in Ontario, Canada. Two community centers served as the research sites and hosts of the YMP. This study received IRB approval, with informed consent obtained from all participants, including parental consent for minors. To ensure confidentiality and protect participants’ identities pseudonyms were assigned to all participants and the community centers.

Two groups of participants, which included a total of 16 students ranging from 11 to 26 years old, represented the unit of analysis. I collected data between the months of January and August 2018. Information about the centers was gathered from their publicly available websites; however, these are not cited to protect the anonymity of participants.

The group from the Community Center 1 (CC1) included seven participants aged 15 to 26 years, of whom only four participated in a 1-hr-long post-performance interview. In contrast, the group from the Community Center 2 (CC2) consisted of 11 participants aged 11 to 15 years, with 8 completing individual interviews with community connectors present at the program’s conclusion. The participants from both centers combined, myself included, represented diverse ethnic and sociocultural backgrounds, including Azerbaijani, Brazilian, Colombian, Eritrean, Iraqi, Lebanese, Mexican, Palestinian, Saudi Arabian, Syrian, and Turkish. All participants were able to communicate in English, both verbally and in writing, while also drawing on other languages when helpful for communication within the group.

All sessions took place at the university where I was a doctoral student at the time in a classroom where we had access to electric and acoustic guitars, bass guitars, drum sets, ukuleles, keyboards, Orff instruments, and assorted percussion instruments, with small cubicles for group work. Some participants came having already played instruments or having had voice lessons outside of the program, but all participants were guided to play, compose, and improvise in all or one of the instruments of their interest. All songs were learned aurally with my support.

Methodology

Ethnography is understood both as a method—long-term immersion in a phenomenon—and a result, referring to the written representation of the findings (Van Maanen, 2004). This duality helps capture the complex processes that guided the inquiry itself as well as the methods employed during the research study. As a methodology, ethnography framed this research to portray and explain a social group and situations within their real-life contexts (Cohen et al., 2013). Considering that ethnography at its core fosters an understanding of how people experience their realities and emphasizes the dynamic interplay between researchers and participants, it allowed me to explore a social phenomenon by observing and analyzing the behaviors of individuals in a specific social event (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019).

Historically, ethnographers used to engage with communities in ways that reflected colonial power dynamics, as researchers often framed the communities they studied as “other” (Spradley, 2016). This outsider perspective, while seeking to describe cultural differences, often overlooked the agency of the communities themselves. Over time, critiques of these traditional ethnographic approaches led to the development of postmodern methodologies, including critical ethnography and autoethnography. These frameworks prioritize the voices and experiences of participants and encourage a more reflexive, co-constructed approach to research (Madison, 2011; Thomas, 1993). In this study, critical ethnography serves as a framework and refines social theory by addressing political and social issues (Thomas, 1993) by integrating newcomers’ voices and my perspectives from my position as a researcher and educator. Acknowledging my role in the study is then essential to producing reflexive critical ethnographic work (Madison, 2011), which in turn allows me to assess how my actions and interactions with participants shaped the research outcomes and explicitly include this active participant role within this ethnographic study. This aspect allowed for the analysis of newcomers’ personal stories of migration, settlement, belonging, and social inclusion from a place of trust. Additionally, it provided a lens to explore pedagogical complexities and interrogate the sociopolitical discourses that shape these experiences (Cohen et al., 2013; Madison, 2011).

Methods of data collection

Being a full participant as an educator challenges the traditional notion of ethnographic studies that seek detachment from participants. Methodologically speaking, however, I used rigorous approaches to data collection and triangulation to ensure the information portrayed in this article followed participants’ viewpoints and understandings in addition to my explanations and perceptions (Madison, 2011).

Video recordings captured students’ interactions and engagement, offering deeper insight into their learning processes. Alongside video analysis, I reflected on my pedagogical decisions and teaching approaches throughout the program. After each session, I documented my thoughts in a research journal, aiming to capture the evolving dynamics between myself, the students, and music. This reflective journaling served as field notes and allowed for introspection on the relationships and learning processes unfolding within the sessions. By combining video analysis with reflective journaling, I was able to develop an understanding of the program’s development and the shifting experiences of the participants.

In addition to these methods, one 1-hr long interview was conducted at the end of the study, with one of the community connectors present and with the consent of participants and their guardians in the case of minors. These interviews provided a setting where participants could share their migration stories and reflect on how their involvement in the YMP influenced their sense of identity, belonging, and connection to the broader community. These interviews were the primary source of data for this article, as they highlight the participants’ narratives and the impact of the program on their lives.

Each session concluded with participants sharing reflections on index cards, to which I responded, fostering ongoing dialogue. This method not only allowed participants to engage in deeper self-reflection but also provided immediate feedback on their perceptions of the sessions. It served as a valuable tool to follow up on subtle, unspoken aspects of their experiences that might have been overlooked in verbal interactions.

These dialogic methods align with the principles of critical ethnography by foregrounding participants’ voices, emphasizing co-constructed knowledge, and challenging traditional researcher-participant dynamics (Cohen et al., 2013; Madison, 2011; Thomas, 1993). Together, the interviews and written dialogues allowed for a nuanced understanding of the participants’ individual and collective experiences, situating their narratives within the larger social and cultural contexts of migration and integration.

By analyzing the life stories shared during the interviews, I was able to explore how personal experiences of migration and settlement influenced participants’ identities and their engagement with music. As Barrett and Stauffer (2009) and Kallio (2015) emphasize, life stories provide a lens through which individuals make sense of their lives and social worlds. These stories, shared in both group settings and individual interviews, were integral to shaping the curriculum and pedagogical approaches within the YMP. This iterative process of analysis reflected the core tenets of critical ethnography, which values co-constructed knowledge and emphasizes the agency of participants in the research process (Cohen et al., 2013).

Musical agency as framework for analysis

The analysis of this data was intersubjective, as meanings and interpretations were co-constructed through interactions between the participants, myself as the teacher-researcher, and the broader social discourses surrounding migration and integration in Canada (Seale, 2012; Phillips, 2016). The content of the three main data sources (field notes, interviews, and index cards) was coded offering the following themes.

Field notes offered the themes of purposeful use of language when giving instructions, students’ responses to teacher and peers, students’ musical learning, students’ agency in repertoire selection, students’ development of a musician and performer identity, and students’ English language development. On index cards, students expressed their interest and enjoyment in learning music-related concepts. These were: improvisation and composition, suggestions and aspects of technique on specific instruments, learning music theory, and playing instruments. In interviews, the main themes were hardships during immigration processes, their musical development, their development of a collective sense of belonging throughout the music program, English language learning struggles, and the development of friendships.

From these themes, I identified in literature that Karlsen’s (2011) categories of musical agency could serve as a framework for analysis. The notion of musical agency, defined as “a capacity for action about music or in a music-related setting” (Karlsen, 2011, p. 110), was key to understanding how the newcomers in this study engaged with music, as music education, in this context, is enacted through the actions of those engaging with it. Thus, the relationship between music, action, and the broader social context of mobility provided the framework for analysis within the YMP.

Newcomers demonstrated musical agency when they used music to articulate, negotiate, and redefine their sense of self (Green, 2012; Karlsen, 2011). Rather than only learning musical techniques or imitating others, the participants engaged in musical action by making sense of their experiences in new environments through music. They were “acting in and through music” (Karlsen, 2011, p. 118), engaging in musical practices that were connected to their identities and their adaptation to new social contexts. Building on Karlsen’s (2011) understanding of individual musical actions, this study identified two forms of individual musical action in the experiences of newcomer youth: (1) music for shaping self-identity and (2) music for developing music-related skills, and a collective musical agency which refers to the capability of individuals to collaborate and achieve shared goals, in this case through music (Barnes, 2000). While Karlsen’s framework includes other categories, such as music for self-regulation and self-protection, these were not as prominent in the data collected from this study.

The notion of acting musically—as defined by Karlsen (2011)—goes beyond recognizing individual agency in music learning. It emphasizes the ability to move sympathetically with others, express emotions collectively, and foster a sense of companionship through music. This was evident in two areas: student interviews on their musical experiences, and index card reflections. These reflections were supplemented by video recordings of the classes, my journals as a music teacher-researcher, and the lesson plans I wrote before each session—all of which were analyzed through Karlsen’s (2011) sociologically-inspired understanding of musical agency.

By framing the analysis of newcomer youth experiences through a sociological lens of musical action, this study expands the understanding of immigrant and refugee students’ music learning. Rather than reducing these experiences to simplified narratives of adaptation, this approach offers a more nuanced view, considering the agency and social interactions of the students in musical contexts. For music educators and researchers, this perspective encourages a broader view of how newcomer youth engage with music education, offering new insights into how music can facilitate identity formation, social inclusion, and collective belonging.

Findings and discussion

Singing Mawtini (my homeland)

At the YMP, students often spoke about their experiences with music education in school and how they used music to construct, reinforce, and sometimes repair their sense of self (P. Carter, 2010; Green, 2012). This aligns with Karlsen’s (2011) concept of “acting musically to shape one’s ‘self’” (p. 112). A clear example of this can be seen during a session when students were asked to form groups and practice playing a song together.

While their choices were open, all students selected “Mawtini,” an Arabic song some identified as the “Syrian national anthem” (video-recorded session, August 2, 2018). This choice may be understood through the lens of music as a tool for shaping identity (Karlsen, 2011). Singing a song that associates oneself with a nation could be seen as a way of negotiating a sense of belonging. Anderson (1991) argues that national anthems, when sung collectively, create a shared sense of unity, even among strangers. He describes this as “an experience of simultaneity,” where individuals, despite being unknown to each other, express a collective identity through the act of singing together (p. 145). For Anderson (1991), the nation is an imagined community, one that is shaped, adapted, and transformed over time (p. 141).

For the YMP participants, singing “Mawtini” was less about connecting to a nation and more about connecting with one another. By choosing this song, they found a shared cultural connection that allowed them to come together musically in a moment of collective experience (Stauffer, 2012). Though the song carried national significance, for some participants, its relevance was more about its familiarity and the emotional connection it fostered in the group. Manuel, an 11-year-old newcomer born in the U.S. who had lived in Colombia before moving to Canada, was the only participant who did not know the song. Despite his lack of a personal or national connection to “Mawtini,” it became part of his musical experience as he engaged with his group in playing and performing it (index card, Manuel, August 2, 2018).

“Mawtini” has historically been a protest song known among Iraqis, Syrians, and Palestinians (Rabinowitz & Abu-Baker, 2005), and it was extremely relevant when speaking about establishing connections, showing agency, and creating new ties in Canada. Reflecting on this session, I noted in my journal:

“Mawtini” is important to them. . . During rehearsal, I accidentally left it out of the program, and Naeem asked why we weren’t singing it. They wanted to sing “Mawtini.” The discussions as they practiced it were intense. The tone, volume, and intention in their voices, as they debated how it should be performed, were passionate. It seemed vital that Naeem knew the lyrics and that it was performed “right.” I couldn’t fully understand what they were arguing about, as I don’t speak Arabic, but I let them continue until they resumed practicing. (teacher-researcher reflective journal, September 1, 2018).

This moment reveals a clear sense of agency among the students. The choice to sing “Mawtini” was not just about the song itself, but about how it reflected their individual and collective agency in shaping their identities through music.

Regardless of the national associations of the song, their investment in its performance highlighted its relevance to them at that moment. This aligns with Karlsen and Westerlund’s (2013) understanding of agency as rooted in personal experiences shaped by larger sociopolitical contexts. In this case, the students’ engagement with “Mawtini” reflected their active participation in constructing a sense of self and community, both within their group and within the broader socio-cultural framework, and they made all the decisions regarding the interpretation of the song.

Musical purposes and collective musical agency

At the YMP, students’ expressions of musical agency were closely linked to both the development of music-related skills and the construction of collective musical actions (Karlsen, 2011). Their eagerness to develop skills such as improvisation, composition, music theory, and instrumental performance reflected a desire to engage more deeply in musical interactions, both individually and collectively (Karlsen, 2011, p. 114). This ongoing development, as students demonstrated through their interest and active participation, served not only as an individual pursuit but also as a means of negotiating and enhancing their opportunities for collective music-making.

The YMP’s purpose, both in discourse and practice, centered around using music as a tool for building relationships and fostering shared experiences. Students expressed a strong sense of collective agency, particularly in their ability to navigate social encounters, coordinate musical actions, and affirm collective identity through music. The importance of collective music-making, as identified in the literature (Karlsen, 2011; Kenny, 2018; Small, 1998), was particularly evident through the ways students held each other accountable, coordinated their actions, and collaborated musically. This collective engagement was often expressed through improvisation, composition, and collaborative performances, as well as through discussions on technique, musical understanding, and group dynamics.

Reflective journal entries offer further insight into how pedagogy influenced collective musical agency. For instance, students’ growing ability to listen to one another and repeat the language I used in instruction suggested a developing sense of accountability within the group (teacher-researcher reflective journals, August 14, 16, 23, 2018). This process of repetition and modeling, though initially guided by my instructions, became an expression of the students’ capacity to regulate their actions, reinforcing their collective agency. As Karlsen (2011) suggests, agency involves both individual and collective actions that are socially constructed, and influenced by the larger social context in which they occur.

A key example of this development is illustrated by Naeem, a 12-year-old newcomer who initially struggled to communicate with words but by the end of the program was actively collaborating with peers, demonstrating enjoyment, and became in the lead singer in “Mawtini” (filmed sessions, August 21, 2018; September 15, 2018; teacher-researcher reflective journal, September 1, 2018). Naeem’s ability to recall interactions and describe his musical experiences with peers in detail demonstrated his growing sense of musical agency and collective accountability (semi-structured interview, August 31, 2018). His narrative, which included descriptions of specific collaborations and performances, reflected the emerging sense of musical companionship within the group. Through his engagement, Naeem not only recognized his role in the music-making process but also acknowledged the presence and contributions of his peers, reinforcing the idea of shared musical agency (Karlsen, 2011; Karlsen & Westerlund, 2015).

Concluding remarks

The social context surrounding newcomer youth explored in this paper reflects the urgent need to develop broader discourses of mobility, belonging, and adaptation. These discourses, whether explicit or not, shape individuals’ practices and their interactions within various sociocultural frameworks (Turino, 2008). By focusing on the experiences of newcomer youth, this study offers insights into how music can function as a tool for navigating social instability and mobility. This perspective challenges static, often deficit-based views of newcomers, suggesting instead that their engagement with music represents a dynamic process of adaptation and agency.

For music education, the key lies in viewing students not solely as vulnerable subjects but as active participants who can explore, adapt, and reshape their identities and environments through music (Ocádiz, 2023). Recognizing these capabilities opens up possibilities for music educators to connect with students on a deeper level, focusing on adaptability and responsiveness in music-making. In doing so, musical actions become both individual and collective expressions of self, shaped by social context and intercultural exchange (Froelich, 2007).

As Karlsen (2013) notes, the complexities of music education for students from diverse backgrounds require ongoing dialogue around content integration and cultural recognition. However, it is important to remember that the lived complexities of these students may not be fully captured through traditional repertoire or curriculum alone. Rather, the actions and practices of both students and educators—how they engage musically and interpret their surroundings—are equally critical in understanding their musical agency.

At the YMP, students demonstrated their ability to navigate diverse realities with the help of music, engaging in a range of musical practices that spanned pop songs, traditional melodies, and collaborative improvisations and compositions (Karlsen, 2011). Through these actions, students were not passive recipients of education; they were musical agents, shaping both their individual experiences and their social environments (Westerlund, 2002). This process of active participation in musical meaning-making challenges the notion that music education for newcomers should be solely about integration into a dominant culture. Instead, it highlights the importance of viewing musical engagement as a way for students to express their identities and negotiate their place within multiple, shifting contexts. Through performance and collaboration, students navigated adaptation, offering insights into music education’s role in newcomer integration. These insights may in turn challenge educators and community facilitators to think critically about the role of music in shaping identities, fostering collective agency, and navigating the complexities of social belonging.