Expressiveness in Choral Conducting: Key Insights and Approaches from Expert Conductors

Non-Verbal Communication and Expressiveness

Expressiveness develops under the influence of various parameters, including musical (tempo, dynamics, intensity, etc.) and stylistic ones (such as genre, historical period, language of the text, etc.). Defining expressiveness is challenging due to the range of concepts involved, such as skills, emotions, intuition, the use of images, etc. (Broomhead, 2006). Virtually all musical elements can be performed expressively. Gesture in musical performance is closely tied to the affective-emotional domain. A gesture can be considered “expressive” depending on the information it conveys and the implicit messages it contains (Camurri et al., 2004). According to Nápoles et al. (2021, 2022), an expressive movement enhances musical performance, though results vary when such expressive movement is absent. Montemayor and Silvey (2019) found that conductor expressivity significantly influences performers’ evaluations of verbal instruction, suggesting that verbal and non-verbal communication in rehearsal are inseparable dimensions of effective conducting.

This evolution in choral conducting positions the conductor not merely as a coordinator but as a communicator. Ordás (2013, 2022) considers “expressive timing” an essential component of communication between conductor and choir, emphasizing the importance of temporal coordination and expressiveness. Through gestures, the conductor conveys the expressive meaning of the music and contributes to an understanding of expressiveness in performance.

Embodiment and Gesture in Music Education

In recent years, psychological frameworks such as Embodied Cognition have offered a more holistic view of choral music, emphasizing that musical meaning emerges from the dynamic interaction between body and mind. From this perspective, both conductors and choristers learn through bodily engagement, as gesture posture and movement become integral to musical thinking and communication (Shapiro & Stolz, 2019). Applied to choral conducting, this view suggests that the conductor’s physical actions are not merely technical indicators, but embodied expressions of mental and emotional intention that shape the ensemble’s musical response.

This perspective aligns with Garnett’s (2009) analysis of conducting gesture as a culturally shaped, embodied form of musical understanding. She argues that conductor’s gestural languages are integral to how musical meaning is constructed and shared within a choir, influencing singers at an unconscious level.

Various researchers have addressed this issue analyzing conceptions and practices during rehearsals (Corbalán, 2010; Corbalán et al., 2023). In this regard, Liao and Davidson (2016) demonstrated that gesture and movement training can improve intonation in children’s choir sessions. This shows that the body plays an active role in musical learning. They suggest that incorporating gesture and movement training into choir rehearsals could be an effective teaching strategy. Similarly, Juslin and Lindström (2016) argue that the body and physical movement are intrinsically linked to the mental representation required to develop interpretive skills, reinforcing the idea that expressive communication is grounded in embodied processes. Technical skills and expression must be combined to produce fluid movements and others that, while are not technically necessary for the music, are essential for the communication of performance.

This perspective clarifies the relevance of embodied cognition to choral conducting and provides a conceptual foundation for analyzing how conductors internalize and transmit expressive meaning through the body.

Pedagogical Perspectives on Choral Rehearsal

Choral rehearsal as a teaching-learning space positions the choral conductor as a teacher to some extent, requiring numerous skills to achieve the desired objective. In this context, the relationship between the involved agents depends on factors such as the choir’s musical level and the conductor’s experience, influencing the methodologies of teaching and learning (Corbalán et al., 2019). This involves the ability to identify and solve problems, as well as teaching how to perform a musical piece. In this regard, Liaw et al. (2025) explain how choral conducting serves not only as a technical practice but also as a pedagogical and expressive tool, integrating performance with musical understanding through educational approaches. Research highlights the value of metaphors, imagery, and theatrical techniques to foster expressiveness (Woody et al., 2024).

Bonastre (2015) argues that expressiveness should be prepared during rehearsal [class] as its conception differs between teachers and students. Her research reveals that both teachers and students consider it relevant. Bonastre and Nuevo (2020) assert that expression and communication are central functions in music and the training in these skills should be a priority in psychoeducational research. In this sense, García Barraza (2017) connects the work of the actor and the choral conductor, suggesting the exchange between theatre and choral conducting.

Authors like Luke (2022) and Abramo (2016) also emphasize the need to combine musical and pedagogical skills during rehearsal. Abrahams and Abrahams (2017) highlight that both singing and conducting a choir are collaborative social processes. Drawing on social constructivist and experiential learning theories, they argue that meaning in choral performance is co-constructed through interaction rather than transmitted unidirectionally from conductor to singers. This perspective is relevant because positions the conductor’s communication not merely as instruction, but as a part of a shared interpretative dialogue in which gestures, bodily expression, and feedback from the choir contribute to shaping musical understanding.

Training and Leadership in Choral Conducting

The conductor’s training is fundamental to communicating and expressing effectively. Various studies, such as Jansson et al. (2021), highlight the importance of the choral conductor not only as a musician but also as a multifaceted leader capable of adapting to diverse circumstances, such as the type of choir or other contextual factors. This study indicates that while solid academic training is important, choristers value the conductor’s ability to adapt to circumstances. Thus, the skills required during rehearsals extend beyond mere technical-musical competence. Luke (2022) similarly stresses that while clear conducting gestures are important for representing musical ideas, the ability to generate these ideas through gesture requires practice and experience. Similarly, Oriola et al. (2023) consider empathy and leadership essential capacities for effective choral conducting.

Data Collection Instruments and Techniques

The methodology used for this part of the research is qualitative (Maxwell, 2012). A semi-structured interview was designed with ten general questions distributed across the various categories previously established (see the Results section). The questions were developed based on the theoretical framework and the research aims. Three experts in the field validated the questions. All participating conductors answered the same questions. The interviewees signed informed consent forms, and the ethical considerations of the university for this type of research were respected. Transcripts of their interviews were made available to the interviewees. The questions that were asked are the following:

The interviews were conducted via the Google Meet platform, except for one which was conducted in person. All interviews were recorded on video and audio using a mobile phone and a voice recorder and were subsequently transcribed into Word documents for analysis. The interviews were conducted for a duration of between 45 and 70 min. The duration of the responses varied considerably among participants and across questions. Some conductors provided extensive reflections on certain categories, while others answered briefly. In some cases, certain topics emerged spontaneously at earlier stages of the interviews; consequently, when these issues were addressed again through specific questions, the corresponding responses tended to be shorter.

Participants

The participants consisted of six expert conductors with more than 10 years of recognized experience in the choral field. Conductors 1, 2, and 6 are nationally and internationally renowned figures. Conductors 3, 4, and 5, residing in the same city, participated in the empirical part of the research, which involved working with the same choir during several rehearsals within a set period. Each conductor has a different profile, which significantly enriched the research through their diverse experiences and perspectives. All of them conduct amateur choirs of different levels, which constitute the focus of this study. While some participants also conduct professional ensembles, our analysis concentrates on their work with amateur choirs. The six conductors are based in Spain and they work primarily in Spanish. They share a background in Western classical music and hold advanced training in conducting, although their professional trajectories vary in scope and context. The profiles of each conductor are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1.

Characteristics of the Conductors Participating in the Semi-Structured Interviews.

Conductor	Profiles
1	A nationally and internationally renowned choral conductor and composer. Age: 74
2	A highly respected conductor nationally and internationally, a pioneer in advocating for women’s recognition in choral conducting. Age: over 60
3	A choral and orchestra conductor. Conservatory professor specializing in Early Music. Age: 60
4	An experienced choral conductor with extensive singing experience in choirs. Conducts a medium-high level choir and another amateur choir. Age: 47
5	A choral conductor with extensive experience in children’s and youth choirs. Has also conducted adult choirs for years. Age: 50 to 60
6	One of the most recognized choral conductors nationally and internationally. Conducts amateur and professional choirs. Age: 48

Analysis

The qualitative data, derived from the interview answers, were transcribed and entered into the Atlas.ti software (version 7) for thematic analysis. The analysis followed an iterative process of categorization across several stages. Coding was performed by one researcher and subsequently validated by other researcher through a process of verifying the identified themes. In cases of disagreement, discussions were held until consensus was reached. Although the interview transcripts were shared with the participants for verification, no formal procedure was carried out to verify the researchers’ interpretations.

Communication

All conductors emphasized the importance of clear and effective communication with the choir, employing both verbal and non-verbal elements. All interviewees highlighted body language, eye contact, and facial expressions, as well as the need to establish an emotional connection with the choir from the beginning. “There are very important aspects, especially bodily ones” (Conductor 1). According to conductors 2 and 3, communication is an all-encompassing concept: posture, eye contact, tone of voice, and more influence the choir’s response. As conductor 3 noted: “Communication encompasses everything we do; our posture, gaze and gestures must be aligned with what we wish to convey.”

Conductor 6 reinforced this holistic view of communication, emphasizing that the communicative process begins even before the music starts: “From the moment you enter the room until the music begins, things are already happening.” However, this conductor introduced a different dimension of communication, stressing the importance of flexibility and adaptability, as there is no fixed formula for communicating with the choir. He considers that each group has a different level of receptivity, making the communicative process non-linear.

Body language and empathy-based connection with the choir were seen as fundamental to communication (conductor 5). Conductor 4 stressed the importance of establishing positive communication with the choir, along with gestures that are correct and consistent with spoken and physical actions. Similarly, conductor 1 remarked that effective communication combines appropriate body language with an attitude that reflects the desired emotions and musical performance.

Expressive Gesture and the Concept of Expressiveness

All the interviewed conductors agreed that an expressive gesture is essential. Conductors 1 and 2 emphasized the importance of understanding and reflecting the musical intent of the text and the score through gesture. Conductor 2 pointed to Mozart’s Ave Verum Corpus and Monteverdi’s madrigals as examples of how text and music are inseparably linked in choral performance. Working on expressive gestures during rehearsals involves considering both physical and mental elements, such as body posture, facial expressions, and arm and hand movements.

Conductor 3 defines expressive gesture as “the one who achieves the appropriate level of expressiveness (. . .).” For conductor 5, expressiveness creates a special bond with the choir. In this regard, conductor 2 stated: “The posture and attitude of the conductor can influence the choir’s response.”

All agreed that it is necessary to conduct expressively, provided that the gestures must be aligned with the musical context, as different types of expressiveness correspond to the character of the music. Conductor 4, for example noted that any gesture communicates something, even when it is neutral. Expressiveness and communication are intertwined and are essential for the correct performance of works. Conductor 6 associated expressiveness with energy, emphasizing that it is not a static concept but one that depends on the context and type of music, capable of generating higher or lower energy levels. He advocates for expressive gesture that evolves throughout rehearsals and adapt to the piece and the choir’s level of preparation.

All interviewees agreed on the importance of conducting with expressive gesture adapted to the type of music and the choir. Conductor 1 illustrated this point with references to specific repertoires, contrasting for example the energy of a lively jota (folk dance) with the rhythmic drive of the Basque espatadantza. This example highlights how different musical traditions call for different expressive approaches. Conductor 2 also highlighted that expressiveness is achieved by conducting with the whole body and using body language to emotionally guide the choir.

Resources and Tools for Enhancing Expressiveness During Rehearsals

The resources and tools proposed by the conductors are varied, considering they work with choirs of different profiles; from children’s and youth choirs to amateur choirs with different levels of musical experience. These differences influenced their rehearsal methodologies. In this study, “imagery” refers specifically to the use of metaphors and conceptual images, rather than to physical or visual pictures.

In general, the use of images, ideas, and specific gestures proved useful for conductors 2 and 3. Conductor 2 emphasized the physical participation of the group through theatrical exercises to work on expressiveness and correct aspects such as intonation or rhythm: “I use my arms a lot. For example, if we are working on a legato, I use them extensively as if it were a choreography.” Providing a good vocal example during rehearsals was especially important for conductors 1 and 5.

All conductors agreed on the importance of involving the whole body in expression as a rehearsal resource. For conductor 2, the gesture should reflect the body as a whole and not be limited to the arms. Conductor 6 added that gestures should coherently accompany the musical message conveyed: “What should never happen is saying one thing and no supporting it with gestures.”

Emotional and social aspects are also crucial for a successful rehearsal. Social skills are resources that conductors must learn to perform their roles more effectively. Conductor 1 stressed the importance of adapting rehearsal work to the choir’s emotional state and tailoring the repertoire to the choristers’ circumstances. Several conductors emphasized this idea, noting that being able to perceive the choir’s emotional climate and adjust the rehearsal accordingly is fundamental. Positive motivation and fostering a good atmosphere were essential for all interviewees. Conductor 5 recommended considering the heterogeneity of the groups and their learning levels. Conductor 6 expanded on these ideas by emphasizing the importance of understanding the choir’s abilities and limitations to adapt accordingly. He highlighted the need to adjust gestures and methods based on the “double feedback” received from the choir, refining interactions according to the group’s responses.

Regarding when to work on expressiveness in rehearsals, opinions varied. Conductors 1 and 5 believed that expressiveness should be addressed from the beginning of the rehearsals, using tools such as images, movements, or theatrical resources to achieve the desired expressive outcome. As conductor 1 said: “I spent three years conducting with my hands like this (makes a gesture), just because that was how it was supposed to be done, but I wasn’t really aware of my responsibility or of what I needed to know in order to communicate. So, really, from the very beginning.”

Conductor 2 also supported using these resources during rehearsals to work on the choir’s expressiveness. Conversely, conductor 6 offered a different perspective, advocating for a gradual transition from more technical gestures in the early stages of the rehearsal to more expressive gestures as the choir becomes more familiar with the piece: “I would distinguish between effective gestures and expressive gestures, focusing first on the basics and then gradually introducing more expressiveness.”

Training of the Conductor

All conductors agreed on the need for comprehensive training that includes knowledge of choral conducting technique as well as expressive and communicative skills. They recommended working on both aspects from the start of training, while acknowledging that a basic technical training is necessary to develop expressiveness. As conductor 2 stated: “Technique and expressiveness cannot be separated: they must go hand in hand.” Conductor 6 noted that learning the technique is relatively straightforward, but imparting meaningful intention through gestures can only be achieved through daily experience and facing challenging situations. For conductor 1, motivation is fundamental: “Having someone to motivate you is important.” Conductors 3 and 5 emphasized the importance of reflecting on one’s own strengths and weaknesses to develop empathetic leadership and improve the relationship with the choir. This comprehensive training must be continuous over time, as conductor 4 remarked: “you never stop learning.”

Advice for Future Conductors

Most interviewees agree on the importance of continuous self-assessment (“self-analysis” as conductor 1 says) and training in both technique and expressiveness to expand one’s expressive resources. Achieving this requires working on your own personality and style. In this sense, conductor 2 suggests “First, they should discover their own personality – see what they have, whether they are very passionate or not, whether they are more cerebral or analytical.”

Conductor 3 suggests observing body language in daily life and engaging in other artistic disciplines, such as theatre or dance, to enhance expressiveness.

Other conductors emphasize the value of singing in a choir and observing the work of other conductors. Most of them consider learning from others is very valuable for developing critical thinking, thus broadening their gestural repertoire and incorporating gestures they find most interesting. As conductor 4 states: “The more hands you see, the more you selfishly expand your capacity and range of gestures.” Additionally, conductor 6 recommends placing particular value on the special moments that occur during rehearsals.

According to conductor 1, one must be “absolutely obsessed with the idea of being a choir conductor,” while avoiding complacency, as conductor 5 warns “We have never truly reached the goal.”

Communication and Adaptation in Rehearsal Interaction

Although all interviewed conductors agreed on the importance of communication, expressiveness, and expressive gesture, their approaches to addressing these aspects during rehearsals differed according to their experience and context.

Clear and fluid communication with the choir should be accompanied by posture, gaze, and gestures aligned with the intended message. The theory of embodiment, or embodied cognition, could provide valuable insights into this process of internalization by the conductor.

There is no fixed formula for communicating with a choir; instead, the conductor must adapt to the group, considering its characteristics and receptivity. Research on implicit theories of teaching and learning supports this notion, aligning with the idea of dynamic adaptation (Corbalán et al., 2019).

Expressive Gesture and Embodied Musical Understanding

An expressive gesture is essential in rehearsals, encompassing body posture, physical expression, and the movements of arms and hands (Val-Claraco, 2013). Understanding and conveying the composer’s intention through music and text involves a process of embodiment. The conductor’s expressive gesture is not merely a physical amplification of musical ideas but a form of thinking-through-the-body. Interviews highlight in this sense the importance of internalizing the music and planning previously the rehearsal work (Liaw et al., 2025), which enhances the significance of gestures in front of the choir. The expressive clarity of the gesture therefore emerges from the integration of body, musical imagery, and emotional intention. In this sense, embodiment provides a valuable explanation for the conductors’ descriptions of how gesture becomes more fluid, coherent, and meaningful when the music is fully assimilated. This idea relates to the theory of embodiment, or embodied cognition, as applied to the field of education (Shapiro & Stolz, 2019).

As conductors described, the clarity and nuance of their gestures depended on how well the music had been assimilated emotionally, cognitively, and physically. This reinforces the idea that gesture emerges from an embodied understanding of the score.

From a holistic perspective of choral conducting, every gesture communicates something, even reduced expressivity (Nápoles, et al., 2021; B. Silvey et al., 2025). According to Garnett (2009), conductor’s gestural languages play an integral role in how musical meaning is constructed and shared within a choir, influencing singer’s responses at an often unconscious level. As Bonastre (2015) suggests, it is important to work in this sense during rehearsals due to their relevance.

Bodily Movement, Expressiveness, and Pedagogical Tools

Using the entire body and maintaining coherence between bodily expression and musical discourse is fundamental. Additionally, the impact of verbal discourse on expressive gestures must be considered, ensuring both remain consistent, as demonstrated by Montemayor and Silvey in their 2019 research. Thus, body movement emerges as an indispensable element for enhancing expressiveness during rehearsals. Hibbard (1994) already confirmed in her study that movement is an effective pedagogical tool for achieving the conductor’s objectives. Hibbard emphasizes that movement promotes rehearsal efficiency, fosters a sense of group achievement and trust, provides expressive nonverbal communication for choristers, and enhances the learning process through kinaesthetic, visual, and auditory perspectives.

Embodied cognition also clarifies why coherence between verbal communication and bodily gesture is essential. Within this framework, gesture and speech are part of the same expressive system; when they diverge, communication becomes ineffective. According to embodiment, the conductors’ emphasis on aligning their bodily expression with the intended musical messages reflects the idea that gesture and meaning are inseparable.

The interviews show a variety of resources and tools suggested for improving expressiveness in rehearsals, such as the use of images, metaphors, physical, or theatrical movements. García Barraza (2017) finds a connection between choral singing and theatre, considering the choral conductor as an actor and choir as the character reciting the text, incorporating bodily elements. Along these lines, working on the text during rehearsals not only enhances understanding of the piece but also enriches its performance.

Emotional Awareness, Social Dynamics, and Leadership

For the conductors interviewed, the emotional and social aspects of the choir are also relevant for ensuring fluent rehearsals and fostering a positive environment. Perceiving the choir’s mood and adjusting the rehearsal accordingly is considered a beneficial strategy. Empathy and leadership were described as essential for achieving these aims. The ability to send and receive such information strengthens the conductor’s leadership capacity. Oriola et al. (2023) concluded that a choral conductor should not only focus on the musical aspects but also address conflict resolution and the creation of a positive work atmosphere. Their study emphasizes the need for conductors to have training in socio-emotional competences to successfully manage the dynamics of musical groups.

The socio-emotional observations made by the conductors can also be understood through embodiment. Emotional states are not only cognitively perceived but physically enacted, and conductors modify their bodily perception of the choir’s mood to adjust the rehearsal. Hence, embodiment shapes the interactional flow and the effectiveness of expressive communication. The conductors’ reflections also highlight that expressive communication in rehearsal is a co-constructed process. This dynamic interaction supports the view that meaning in choral performance is a collaborative process, with gestures as an interpretative bridge through which both conductor and choir shape the musical outcomes together.

Implications for Conductor Training

Conductor training is crucial for addressing the complexities of leading a rehearsal. It is recommended that conductors pursue comprehensive training from the beginning, encompassing technical, social, communicative, and expressive skills, as previously discussed. This holistic approach not only builds technical confidence but also fosters the empathetic leadership necessary for connecting with the choir.

From this theoretical point of view, training in expression is not limited to technical gestures but involves cultivating embodied awareness. While technical skills can be acquired relatively easily, developing expressive gestures requires experience, learning to integrate kinaesthetic feedback, emotional perception, and musical intention. According to the six expert conductors, continuous training, observing other conductors at work, and engaging in self-critique are essential for improving expressive resources.