What Drives and Inhibits Consumers from Adopting Electric Two Wheelers: A Behavioural Reasoning Theory Perspective

Current View of Motivating Factors and Barriers Towards Adoption of EVs

Given the current government initiatives to achieve sustainability goals (Tarei et al., 2021), several researchers have focused on identifying key factors that drive EV adoption (Bhattacharyya & Thakre, 2021; Das & Bhat, 2022; Dua et al., 2021). Chhikara et al. (2021), employing an extensive thematic analysis, classified these factors into financial incentives, supportive government policies, ease of driving and handling and low pollution parameters. Along similar lines, Verma et al. (2020) identified fuel efficiency, which translates into cost savings, as a critical adoption factor, resonating with the findings of other researchers like Khurana et al. (2020), Mukherjee and Ryan (2020) and Plötz et al. (2014). The role of incentives in promoting EV adoption has been well explored by researchers (Chhikara et al., 2021; Sierzchula et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014), with evidence suggesting that government support in the form of incentives offsets the high initial investment (Langbroek et al., 2016). Infrastructure wise, the availability of charging stations and enhanced assistance in repair and maintenance instils confidence in prospective EV buyers (Berkeley et al., 2018; Chhikara et al., 2021; Egnér & Trosvik, 2018). Also, in terms of technology, increasing the driving range of EVs has been proposed as a key influencing factor (Higueras-Castillo et al., 2021), along with reducing noise and battery charging time (Abotalebi et al., 2019; Rocha et al., 2016). From a psychological standpoint, self-image emerged as a critical factor influencing an individual’s attitude and intention towards purchasing EVs (Khurana et al., 2020). The authors argued that if individuals perceive an EV to be aligned with their personality and lifestyle, they have stronger purchase intentions. This highlights the need for marketing strategies tailored to the personality types of the target audience.

While the majority of academic scholars have focused on identifying the factors that promote EV adoption, the research on barriers that deter EV acceptance is also growing (Dua et al., 2021; Krishna, 2021; Tarei et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2020). Researchers have analysed financial, infrastructural and functional (performance) blockages to understand the reasons behind the low adoption of EVs (Mali et al., 2022). While financial barriers include cost-related factors, high upfront costs, repair and maintenance costs, and fuel (electricity costs) (She et al., 2017; Sierzchula et al., 2014; Tarei et al., 2021), infrastructural barriers focus on the lack of charging stations in offices, homes and public places. Another set of inhibitors, functional barriers, capture parameters associated with low range, safety, reliability and battery life of EVs (Berkeley et al., 2017; She et al., 2017). Tarei et al. (2021) also introduced behavioural and external barriers addressing consumer perceptions and awareness of EVs and scepticism regarding the safety and benefits associated with EVs. External barriers focus on issues of recycling and insufficient government incentives (Tarei et al., 2021). Ruoso and Ribeiro (2022) recently proffered the high purchase price of EVs as one of the key barriers, which reflects the substantial initial investment as noted by Lévay et al. (2017) and Tarei et al. (2021). The researchers further highlighted that high electricity tariffs discourage EV adoption as this is considered a recurring cost in conjunction with a one-time high investment (Dranka & Ferreira, 2020). Poor resale value perceptions further exacerbate financial concerns (Tarei et al., 2021). The fear of being unable to sell a used EV restricted prospective buyers from purchasing an EV currently. Adding to the research focused on diagnosing the barriers towards mass acceptance of EVs, Tarei et al. (2021) pointed out that the barriers might vary based on geographic factors such as consumers’ technological acceptance, economic status and purchasing power in different regions. This indicates the need for a more nuanced understanding of consumers in Tier 2 cities in India, which is central to the current study.

Behavioural Reasoning Theory

The BRT, an extension of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), posits that consumers’ reasons for and reasons against adopting a particular behaviour significantly influence their attitudes and behavioural intentions (Claudy et al., 2015; Westaby, 2005). BRT is distinct from other behavioural theories, chiefly because it accounts for both reasons for and against adopting a specific behaviour, whereas other theories focus only on the positive aspects (Claudy et al., 2015; Jan et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2023; Sahu et al., 2020; Westaby, 2005). Since reasons for and against are not merely opposites of each other, the theory offers deeper insights into how, when and why consumers behave in specific ways (Dhir et al., 2021; Jan et al., 2023). On the one hand, reasons for a behaviour indicate the pros, benefits and facilitating perspectives, while the reasons against any behaviour capture its drawbacks, costs and constraints (Claudy et al., 2015; Westaby, 2005). These reasons for and against help people defend and justify their conduct (Westaby, 2005). In this study, BRT is expected to deepen our understanding of why consumers may or may not adopt E2Ws (Claudy et al., 2012; Gupta & Arora, 2017; Kumar et al., 2023; Sahu et al., 2020). The theory is deemed apt as examining the reasons against the non-adoption of E2Ws assumes critical importance for accelerating the adoption of EVs. The best strategies to encourage the widespread use of EVs can be effectively developed only based on the motivating and inhibiting variables (Chhikara et al., 2021).

Research Design

This study employed a qualitative approach (Nguyen et al., 2022; Shah et al., 2024; Virdi et al., 2020) in conjunction with theory-driven interviews (Habib et al., 2024) to decode consumers’ reasons for and against the adoption of E2Ws. The method was considered pertinent as no prior research findings exist concerning adopting E2Ws in Tier 2 cities. Given the exploratory nature of the study in a relatively unexplored context, the interview-based mechanism was employed as the primary data collection method (Almansour, 2022; Glaser & Strauss, 1999). This methodology allowed consumers living in Tier 2 cities in India to respond comfortably in their own words (Habib et al., 2024), helping to uncover the reasoning for and against E2W adoption. Overall, the qualitative method enabled us to better understand customers’ reasoning (Gordon et al., 2015) by capturing multiple views on E2W adoption in Tier 2 cities of India.

Sample and Data Collection

A total of 89 interviews were conducted across cities in four states of India: Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The states were selected on the basis of their vast population and high demand for E2Ws (Times of India, 2024). Respondents were recruited using a convenience sampling approach in different two-tier cities across busy market locations in the four states mentioned above. An interview guide covered demographic questions, general questions about EVs (such as assessing their awareness and usage) and specific questions related to the reasons for and against adopting EVs. The sample represented a diverse mix of individuals from different age groups, income strata, education levels and occupations across these states. The average age of respondents was estimated to be 30.2 years, with 43.82% holding graduate degrees, 42.69% post-graduate degrees and the remaining 13.49% having diplomas, high school or intermediate qualifications. Also, a significant sample base of 83.14% was engaged in occupational jobs and businesses.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

All interviews were transcribed, and through a meticulous process of coding, which combined pertinent data points, themes were produced, letting the researchers detect patterns in the data (Boardman & McCormick, 2023; Smith, 2015). The methodology proposed by Gioia et al. (2013), based on the grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), was utilized to interpret the findings (Engen et al., 2021). The data were organized into first-order concepts, second-order themes and overarching dimensions as per the coding procedure proposed by Gioia et al. (2013). In line with Habib et al. (2024), coding categories were created using the behavioural reasoning analogy. The researchers involved in the coding process closely adhered to the phrases used by the interviewees while analysing the first-order concepts (Almansour, 2022; Engen et al., 2021). First-order codes captured potential reasons for and against adopting E2Ws by prospective customers, while second-order themes emerged due to the commonalities between the first-order codes, revealing deeper insights into the adoption process. Lastly, overarching themes were created as per Gioia et al. (2013), which indicated the predominant reasons for and against adopting E2Ws in Tier 2 cities in India. The data structure, presented in Figure 1, summarizes the study’s findings, which were derived from the coding process used to analyse the transcribed interviews. The results present a third round of coding review. For example, in the first round, non-financial incentives were not identified as a reason for adoption; however, upon discussion based on excerpts amongst coders, it emerged as a key reason for adoption. Likewise, poor after-sales services surfaced as a key reason against adoption in the second round itself. However, such differences in the first and second coding processes were resolved through discussion before finalizing the data structure.

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Figure 1.

Diagrammatic Representation of the Coding Process.

Reasons for Adoption of E2Ws

In cognizance with previous research, monetary saving emerged as a critical factor for adopting E2Ws in Tier 2 cities of India. Past researchers have also argued that E2W users benefit from the low operational cost associated with E2Ws (Fyhri et al., 2017; Patil & Majumdar, 2022). EV buyers anticipated that the cost of the day-to-day maintenance of EVs will be lower compared to internal combustion vehicles, which will form the basis of savings for daily commuters (Bridi et al., 2022). Our study establishes that consumers were motivated to adopt E2Ws because of the savings from paying low electricity tariffs compared to rising petrol prices, as substantiated by excerpts below, supporting Shetty et al. (2020) and Patil and Majumdar (2022). Specifically, in the state of Punjab, it surfaced as a leading factor, as free electricity encouraged consumers to adopt E2Ws, given the insignificant cost of charging E2Ws.

‘This vehicle differs from […] petrol. It is a one-time investment that you can use immediately, and electricity is free in Punjab, and this vehicle does not require a large amount of electricity’. (P5)

‘Here in Punjab, Electricity is also free, so I can also save fuel and money’. (P25)

‘The electric vehicle is cheaper in the future perspective as you can see in the market that the prices of the fuel are on the peak and it is becoming very costly for people and if we compare fuel vs electricity, we will find a big gap between the two’. (P40)

‘As you know, in the coming days, petrol and diesel are going to be a problem for everyone as the price of fuels is increasing day by day […], we can save money. You just need to charge the EV and you can go where you want to go. We can only use it for less distances and every month, you can save up to 10 thousand as you don’t need to go for fuel’. (P39)

‘If I have to travel locally then in an Electric vehicle, I will get more benefit. I can save fuel and also money’. (P19)

Apart from monetary savings, it was found that consumers were willing to adopt E2Ws as their mode of transport because of the minimal formalities required, which are also looked at from the perspective of non-financial incentives (Hardman, 2019). Bhat and Verma (2024) also endorsed the importance of creating awareness about the non-financial incentives which appear to serve as attraction points. Past research asserts that incentives like exemption from taxes, registration fees, free parking and removal from traffic restrictions promoted the adoption of EVs (Zhang et al., 2022). When E2Ws are purchased, no registration and licensing documents are required. This also helped consumers save on registration costs, adding to the other monetary savings. Helmet conditions are also relaxed in the case of E2Ws because of the limited and controlled acceleration, making it a preferred choice for consumers.

‘[…] the reason to consider electric vehicles is my father. As his age is sixty, he cannot ride the petrol vehicle because of its heavy weight. Police also create issues as his license has expired. EV doesn’t require any license to ride, and hence, it is indeed a good buy for us’. (P7)

‘EV is a noise-free and pollution-free vehicle. You also do not need to wear a helmet as its speed is limited as compared to petrol vehicles […] police don’t put any fines for riding them’. (P28)

The study’s findings also revealed that feelings of pleasure and relaxation were associated with driving an E2W because of its no-noise technology. Thøgersen and Ebsen (2019) reiterated that driving pleasure is a reality of driving an EV because it makes minimal noise. Rocha et al. (2016) discovered that minimal noise emission is critical in gaining a larger market share. Burgess et al. (2013) also found that buyers were impressed with EVs’ reduced noise. In addition, as it lacks gear-based handling while driving, consumers found it relaxing and comfortable to ride, even for long hours (Wolff & Madlener, 2019).

‘[…] easy to ride because there is no gear in this […] very comfortable riding’. (P31)

‘This vehicle is comfortable so you can drive it longer; it depends on the performance of the battery. There is a vibration in the petrol vehicle when you drive it, your body gets exhausted soon the body but, in an EV, there is no vibration and that’s why this is comfortable’. (P52)

‘This is a light vehicle and I think this is more comfortable than a petrol vehicle’. (P12)

‘Petrol vehicles sound very hard and they are also not good looking. So, in my opinion, EVs are good’. (P23)

‘This is a silent vehicle, so there is very little noise pollution, and it is very comfortable to ride even in traffic. Because of this, its stress-free’. (P23)

‘If you use it, your mind feels relaxed because it is a noise-free vehicle’. (P31)

Some consumers explicitly prefer E2Ws for females and senior citizens. Gender differences as regards preferences for EVs have been endorsed by EV researchers (Sovacool et al., 2019). Jayasingh et al. (2021) identified that women usually prefer EVs as they are low-speed vehicles and hence considered safer for women. Cherry (2007) pointed out that offering high speed in EVs might deter women and senior citizens from adopting the same. Our study recognized that its light weight makes it safe for women and senior citizens to drive. This was further complemented by the limited acceleration of the E2Ws, reducing the chances of accidents.

‘For me, the reason was my father’s age. He is sixty and cannot ride the petrol vehicle because those are heavy in weight and I personally feel scared thinking—what if he fell’. (P7)

‘I will purchase the battery electric vehicle because riding it is very easy. People suggest that I am getting old, so I should purchase the battery electric vehicle, and I also feel that this is safe to ride’. (P4)

‘This vehicle is good for ladies because it is very lightweight and girls can ride it smoothly’. (P34)

‘Yes, I will purchase this vehicle for my daughter because she has to go to school. She is short in height and so if she falls, she will not get a major injury […] The vehicle is very lightweight and for ladies, this is very good. The speed is enough for the ladies’. (P29)

‘[…] good for ladies because […] lightweight vehicle […] For senior citizens, this is also good because this has limited speed’. (P28)

Furthermore, it was also identified that E2Ws are suitable and more appropriate for local commuting.

‘I will purchase this vehicle. I have to travel within the city, so I consider it as the best for local travelling, and I can charge it at home itself’. (P54)

‘Yes, I will purchase it because I have to travel locally and it is perfect for travelling locally’. (P28)

‘If I have to travel locally in an electric vehicle, I will get more benefits. I can save fuel and also money’. (P19)

Finally, the pro-environmental approach was also found to encourage consumers to adopt E2Ws, echoing the findings of past researchers. Jain et al. (2022) defined the pro-environmental approach as an individual’s care and concern for the environment and conscious behaviour towards it. Hoang et al. (2022) also validated that consumers with a pro-environmental approach are more likely to purchase EVs. Quite recently, Shetty and Rizwana (2024) also expressed the positive impact of a pro-environmental approach on EV purchase intentions. Having realized the severe consequences of internal combustion vehicles on the environment, consumers with a pro-environmental approach take it as their personal responsibility to protect the environment, a sentiment which aligns with the findings of Asadi et al. (2021).

‘EV is less pollutive in my opinion, and when it will start operating, pollution will be reduced, and the quality of air will be good, the reason being that it does not emit smoke’. (P10)

‘Environment will be good because it is zero pollutive and the air quality will improve. Less pollution will maintain the greenery’. (P18)

‘There is too much pollution in my city, and EVs do not make any sound, so it is pollution-free as well as noise-free, and this has a positive impact on our environment’. (P23)

‘[…] this is a less pollutive vehicle and carbon emission will be minimal. Pollution is very high here. EVs will help in saving the environment. Air quality will improve and the people who are facing breathing problems will feel better. Many diseases are caused due to polluted air and this will decrease’. (P25)

Reasons for Non-adoption of E2Ws

This study’s findings affirmed the higher upfront costs of owning an E2W as a critical barrier, inhibiting the swift adoption of E2Ws in Tier 2 cities, in India. As the price of owning an E2W is higher than that of internal combustion vehicles, consumers hesitate to adopt them. In a study by Moeletsi (2021), approximately 54% of the respondents indicated their unwillingness to buy EVs because of high prices and affordability issues. As rightly argued by Patyal et al. (2021), the high price in the context of EVs is on account of the high cost and size of the battery, the premium charged for innovative technology and limited economies of scale, which, in turn, make it difficult for the masses to adopt the same.

‘It is too costly as you can get another vehicle for 70 to 80k but in this segment, if you want a vehicle within a good range, you need to spend around 1.5 lac’. (P46)

‘This vehicle is very costly. You can purchase another vehicle that is running on petrol, and they will be cheaper, and their mileage would be much better than this vehicle’. (P47)

Along with higher upfront costs, personal negative motives primarily inhibited customers from adopting E2Ws (Sahoo et al., 2022). Personal negative motives assume importance here as they capture the essence of one’s aspirations and expectations regarding E2Ws. The negative inhibitions in the mind of consumers concern inferior charging infrastructure, poor driving range and being unfit for long journeys. These were the main factors that discouraged consumers from adopting E2Ws, echoing the findings of Higueras-Castillo et al. (2021), Bhat and Verma (2024) and Shetty and Rizwana (2024).

‘The range is also very low, the company says it will be 90 km, but it stops after 60–70 km, so the range is also an issue’. (P25)

‘No, I am not open to purchasing it because sometimes I have to go the long route and these vehicles do not have that much range’. (P24)

‘The reason to not consider EVs is you cannot go very long distances and so the range anxiety is there. For example, if you have to travel from Ludhiana to Ambala, this is not good because the battery gets discharged’. (P21)

‘I have to travel around 100 km in a day, so right now I am not open to shifting, but if the (range) issues will be resolved, I can think about this’. (P16)

‘[…] it has a charging issue here in the city as no charging station is available. This is not good for me as I have to go on long routes and when the EV stops on the road, I cannot do anything. In a petrol vehicle, I can ask someone for help, but in this vehicle, it is not possible’. (P38)

There is no charging station in my city. In other vehicles, I can refill petrol anytime but in an EV, there is no such kind of thing’. (P12)

Another reason why consumers did not purchase E2Ws is limited vehicle space, which is due to their design and durability. Schmalfuß et al. (2017) also identified vehicle space as an essential parameter while evaluating customers’ direct experiences with EVs. In our study, a few consumers highlighted that E2Ws were deemed unfit for carrying the whole family because of inadequate space.

‘There is a negative point; the seat of EVs is too small, and for the family, there is not (enough) space, for example, my wife can sit on it but for my daughter, there is no space left. So it should have some extra space’. (P5)

‘The other thing is that this vehicle needs to be more powerful so that it can carry more weight. Sometimes people want to take doubles, in that case, the vehicle speed reduces’. (P73)

‘EV fails to carry heavy weight and that is the failure of this segment. If two people are sitting on the vehicle, the speed reduces and it will be time-consuming, these factors create a bad impact of this vehicle in my mind’. (P33)

Along with the reasons cited above for the non-adoption of E2Ws, the lack of availability of adequate after-sales services was also highlighted as one of the inhibitory factors. Consumers highlighted that, specifically in Tier 2 cities, it is difficult to find mechanics who are trained to repair E2Ws. In addition, proper service facilities are also not available with dealers, which deter consumers from adopting E2Ws. Furthermore, consumers pinpointed that mechanics in the city lack the know-how as far as repairing E2Ws is concerned, supporting Goel et al. (2021). Berkeley et al. (2018) have also tendered that confusion and doubt over repair, maintenance and service infrastructure concerning EVs indeed represent a potential barrier to EV adoption, supporting Pamidimukkala et al. (2023) and Giansoldati et al. (2020).

‘The servicing of this vehicle is another issue because it is in the developing stage, so it’s tough to get the service centre of the EV easily’. (P71)

‘[…] the service centre is not available everywhere. If there is some problem in the vehicle, I would not be able to understand what exactly the problem is’. (P46)

‘If there will be a problem created in this vehicle, it is not easy to solve it. There is some software installed in this vehicle and the general mechanic is not able to solve this issue. So, you might get stuck anywhere and nobody can help’. (P31)

‘For petrol vehicles, service centres are easily available. But for this vehicle, the service centres are few in number is not that much available’. (P26)

According to McKnight et al. (2004), distrust is defined as ‘the unwillingness to become vulnerable to the trustee based on the belief that the trustee will behave in a harmful, neglectful, or incompetent manner’. While trust is based on feelings of calmness and security, distrust originates on account of feelings of fear and worry (McKnight & Chervany, 2001). Regarding the non-adoption of E2Ws in Tier 2 cities, it was found that consumers exhibited distrust over both, the government and the dealers of E2Ws. In the context of the government, they feared not getting promised subsidies on time. As regards dealers, they doubted them for providing misleading information concerning the performance of E2Ws and subsidies that the government would provide. In turn, this notably inhibited customers from adopting E2Ws.

‘I am not aware of this but in my opinion, the government only says that they will provide these things. But in reality, they don’t provide anything’. (P24)

‘The dealers do not provide the right information’. (P6)

‘No, I don’t think they provide any support. The government says that we provide subsidies but I did not hear of anyone receiving the subsidy. When you go to purchase the EV, the dealers say that they are giving you the vehicle after the subsidy deduction. Dealers do not tell us what amount of subsidy we will get or what the exact price is. They only say that they are giving you this after the subsidy deduction’. (P7)

‘The dealer does not tell us how much the government gives us as subsidy’. (P29)

Along with the reasons for non-adoption as discussed above, issues of resale anxiety have also been associated with EVs, echoing past researchers like Berkeley et al. (2018) and Goel et al. (2021). Scholars have argued that consumers’ concerns over being unable to sell EVs when needed deter them from adopting them. In our study, similar findings were observed.

‘EVs do not have resale value. You can open OLX, and you will get a long list of EVs because people are not satisfied with the battery performance’. (P27)

‘The resale value is very low because of the plastic body. If this vehicle falls once, this will be no longer in use as you cannot weld it’. (P32)

Also, the non-adoption of E2Ws in Tier 2 cities was powered by the negative word-of-mouth (NWOM) consensus. As suggested by Lee and Cranage (2014), an NWOM consensus indicates the degree to which a consumer agrees with another consumer’s bad internet review (i.e., an initial complaint) or reports or articles. This assumes relevance as consumers attach more importance to negative information/reviews than positive ones while forming judgments (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). In the case of E2Ws, the study identifies that the incidents associated with fire in batteries and blasting of batteries created fear amongst prospective buyers. Chombo et al. (2021) highlighted the serious concerns regarding the issues of blasts and fire accidents in EVs and their likely impact on the reliability of EVs from a buyer’s perspective. In a recent study, Bhat and Verma (2024) argued how incidents of fire accidents in E2Ws have raised serious safety and reliability concerns among prospective buyers.

‘I have seen on social media a case where an electric bike caught fire in the middle of the road because of the battery. So I don’t think it’s safe’. (P77)

‘I read the news that the electric vehicle had a blast because of the battery. So, the safety issue is there. As far as I know, the electric vehicle gets more heated as compared to petrol vehicles’. (P60)

‘We saw in the newspaper and on TV, that this vehicle (EV) caught fire in summer without any reason. This is another reason not to consider EVs because this vehicle is in its initial phase, and it should have come with more safety’. (P53)

Theoretical Implications

Theoretically, the study enriches the literature on EV adoption by bringing E2Ws under the spotlight. Recent sustainability researchers have called for greater attention to E2Ws, due to their importance in achieving decarbonization objectives within the Indian mobility sector (Bhat & Verma, 2024; Chakraborty & Chakravarty, 2023; Murugan & Marisamynathan, 2022; Patil & Majumdar, 2022). Given that motorized two wheelers are India’s most common method of personal transportation and are projected to expand at a 12% annual pace (SIAM, 2020), their importance for controlling GHG emissions cannot be ignored. In 2018, India imported around 205.3 million tons of crude oil to fuel its substantial motorized vehicle fleet (Kirikkaleli & Adebayo, 2021). Hence, this study contributes to highlighting both, the factors for adoption and non-adoption of E2Ws by integrating a qualitative approach informed by theory. The research adds value by adopting the novel BRT perspective, offering a much-advanced viewpoint for understanding human behaviour, compared to prior studies that primarily employed the TAM, TRA and TPB outlooks. Additionally, this study highlights crucial motivating and inhibiting factors, specifically concerning Tier 2 cities in India, a significant market for two wheelers in India.

Managerial Implications

Practically, the study’s findings can be utilized by the E2W sellers and the government to craft the right strategies for promoting faster adoption of E2Ws. Based on the results, we propose designing marketing communications and awareness campaigns focused on E2Ws in Tier 2 cities. While monetary savings were found to induce consumers to embrace E2Ws, higher upfront costs hindered such adoption. Considering these findings, E2W sellers and the government should run campaigns highlighting long-term savings, lower registration costs and minimal expense of charging batteries owing to low electricity tariffs. Additionally, as pinpointed by Bhat and Verma (2024), governments must try to make power cheaper for charging EVs, lowering operational costs and promoting the adoption and broad use of E2Ws. Also, non-financial benefits like minimal registration requirements, parking benefits and free registration must be highlighted to make it a better value proposition as opposed to internal combustion vehicles. Likewise, as E2Ws have been notably perceived to be safer for women and senior citizens owing to their lightweight and controlled acceleration, marketers can also use these elements to promote E2Ws in marketing campaigns. Alternatively, the focus should also be on manufacturing sturdier vehicles with better carrying capacity, making E2Ws more suitable for family commuting. However, there is a dire need to improve the range of E2Ws and develop an extensive network of charging stations to overcome range anxiety among consumers. The situation is particularly dire in Tier 2 cities where charging stations are virtually non-existent. Efforts should not just focus on establishing a greater number of charging stations but also on improving battery life and reducing the charging time. More innovation and technological upgrades are expected in this direction. However, battery swapping is expected to resolve this issue to a large extent. Manufacturers should also make provisions to simplify the purchasing process and improve after-sales services. Additionally, training programs for mechanics must be initiated by E2W manufacturers and sellers to assure prospective buyers of easy access to repair services. Lastly, the government and E2W sellers should also aim to overcome consumer distrust. Accurate information regarding the monetary value of subsidies, correct timelines for disbursement and performance parameters such as speed, range and expected savings must be shared truthfully with prospective buyers to overcome distrust and build confidence.