Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore the self concept of adolescents who are sighted and blind with respect to gender in India. The sample was made up of 160 participants aged 15 to 18 years: of whom 100 were sighted and 60 were blind. The results of the t-tests illustrated that sighted male adolescents scored higher in the overall self-concept scores as compared to sighted female adolescents. However such significant differences in the self-concept scores were not found between the male and female adolescents who are blind. The sighted adolescents scored higher than the adolescents who are blind in three of the total six dimensions of self concept, thus also scoring higher on the overall self-concept score.
Introduction
In the wake of the civil rights movement, women’s rights, children’s rights movements starting in the middle of the 20th-century, there has been increasing pressure against the segregation of any minority groups of students including those with disabilities, especially in Western countries (No child left behind Act, 2001 ).
Early formal attempts at educating children with disabilities in India were made in the last two decades of the 19th-century with the establishment of the first school for children with visual impairment in Amritsar in 1887. The growth of schools for disabled children in the sixty years until the advent of independence was extremely slow and sporadic. By 1947 India had just 32 schools for blind children. The number rose to 170 by 1980 (Panda, 2005, pp. 16–17). Panda (2005) argued that by the late-1990s research in India had not made much headway in the field of special education and it was still in the embryonic stage (Panda, 2005, p. 308). The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities conceptualizes disability as a human rights issue and requires states to provide an inclusive education to all children with disabilities (Hernandez, 2008). However, India does not currently provide inclusive education as the country’s laws do not mandate inclusive education. Although India does have laws that encourage the education of children with disabilities, it lacks the funding and teaching expertise to enforce inclusive education (Hernandez, 2008).
A rough estimate from the Government of India (National Sample Survey Organization, 2002) cited that there were 49 million individuals who were disabled out of which 9 million were visually impaired. These figures do not seem to be static; indeed the tragedy is that they seem to continue to increase at a steady rate. Based upon relatively recent figures, an estimated 45 million people worldwide are blind today and an additional 135 million have significant visual impairment or low vision (Khan, 2004). Nearly 90 percent of the world’s blind live in the developing world (Khan, 2004). Evidence suggests that these numbers are growing at an alarming rate (Khan, 2004). A population-based study has shown that out of an estimated 1014 million population of India, the population of visual impairment in India in the year 2004 was 10.6 million people (Khan, 2004). If these data are extrapolated to the estimated 1175 million population of India in the year 2010, 12.28 million people would be visually impaired (GeoHive, 2010). Concern about the increasing numbers of people with low vision and blindness globally, particularly in the developing world, has led to the need to study those adolescents who are blind in India.
A global perspective of visual impairment and self concept
The potential relationship between visual impairment and difficulties in the formation of self concept has been the subject of much controversy for several years. Most of the studies agree there is a need to continue investigating in this area because discrepant results have been found. Self concept is typically defined as a person’s general composite or collective view of themselves across multidimensional sets of domain specific perceptions, based on self-knowledge and evaluation of value or worth of one’s own capabilities formed through experiences with and interpretations of the environment (Eccles, 2005; Snow et al., 1996). Research studies have observed two extremes in the appraisals of self concept in youths who are visually impaired: either they had a very poor self concept, or they overvalued their personal attributes compared to sighted people. There currently is a small but developing body of research concerning the self concept of children with visual impairments. However, the self concept of adolescents and adults with visual impairments is largely uninvestigated.
Self concept becomes more abstract and differentiated during adolescence (Inhelder and Piaget, 1958). Harter (1990) suggests that adolescents are often disturbed by conflicting views of self. Adolescence is a very important stage of life as young people move further into their teenage years and connect to the adult world, they face unfamiliar territory. Adolescence is a sensitive period for changes and development in the self concept of an individual. The young person with his/her growing ability to think critically tries to discover the various facets of his/her self concept (Ittyerah and Kumar, 2007). Another group of researchers have indicated that self concept is relatively stable all through adolescence (Coleman, 1974; Offer, 1974; Piers and Harris, 1964). However, it may be different for individuals who suffer from chronic illness or have a disability during adolescence. Ben-Tovim and Walker (1995) observed that the development of negative body attitudes may be linked to the emergence of a chronic physical condition during adolescence.
Adolescents with disability face considerable barriers such as low expectations from parents and other significant people in the community, a lack of knowledge about career and educational services and self-advocacy skills during attempts to achieve their goals (Blomquist et al., 1998). Hare and Hare (1977) indicated that the self concept in visually impaired people may be negatively affected because they cannot experience a situation fully or learn about an object in its entirety. Tuttle (1984) stated that although all individuals are vulnerable to the development of a negative self concept, individuals with visual impairments are at even greater risk. He stated that a sense of self-competence and the perceptions of others were important in the individual’s self concept, because students with a visual impairment are perceived as different by others, and so they were more likely to develop a negative self concept. Self-concept research on youngsters with visual impairments has yielded mixed results. Beaty, (1992) indicated that the students who are visually impaired were prone to feelings of inadequacy and inferiority which in turn resulted in their low self-concept scores. Lifshitz, Hen and Weisse (2007) found significant differences between the self-concept scores of the adolescents with visual impairments and that of their sighted peers.
Other studies have found no such deficits in the self-concept scores among children/adolescents with visual impairments when compared with their sighted peers (Fok and Fung, 2004; Garaigordobil and Bernarás, 2009; Griffin-Shirley and Nes, 2005; Jervis, 1959; Obiakor and Stile, 1989). Huurre, Komulainen and Aro (1999) established that the relations with friends contribute significantly to the improvement of self-esteem of young people who are visually impaired. Some investigations have attempted to determine whether there are gender differences in the self concept of men and women who are visually impaired. Paulinelli and Tamayo (1986) showed that the sighted males scored higher in self-confidence than the females in Portugal, but there were no differences in the blind subjects as a function of gender in any of the self-concept factors. However, in another investigation carried out by López-Justicia and Pichardo (2003), the females scored lower in the social self-concept dimensions and higher than the males in physical self concept.
Literature in the areas of well-being, depression, mental health, and studies of the psychosocial impacts of vision impairment on adolescents suggest that social isolation and perceptions of disability by peers can impact on the self-esteem of adolescents with vision impairment (Hatlen, 2004; Kef, 2002). Their welfare can be positively affected by physical well-being, strong friendship and family networks, and encouragement by adults towards independence (Kef and Dekovic, 2004; Koenes and Karshmer, 2000; Rosenblum, 2000). Positive perceptions of disability and inclusion can also have helpful impact (Kef, 2002). The literature demonstrates that individuals with visual impairments are able to hold a positive self concept although mixed results have been obtained from researchers worldwide.
Visual impairment in India
Veena (1986) made an attempt to study the adjustment patterns to visual impairment in relation to age. The results indicated that the older group of students with a visual impairment were emotionally less adjusted than their counterparts. Sarita and Shaheen (1990) studied the relationship between visual impairment and socio-economic status and stated that majority of the students with a visual impairment belonged to the lower socio-economic group. So this could have an impact on their self concept. Khan (1985) indicated that the children with visual impairment were comparatively low in their educational aspirations as compared to their sighted peers. So research was conducted on other issues such as adjustment, performance, psychological and social factors which indicated that students with a visual impairment were disadvantaged as compared to their normal peers. This could cast a negative influence on their self concept. Singh and Pathak (1984) administered the Eysenk’s Personality questionnaire on sighted students and students who are visually impaired. It was found that the two groups did not significantly differ on any of the 4 scales but there was a marginal difference only in the lie scale.
The interaction of persons who are blind with the sighted was investigated by Mehta (1980) in the capital of India, New Delhi. It was found that both the groups had deep rooted misunderstandings towards each other. The blind subjects developed insecurity and negative attitudes towards their sighted peers. On the other hand, the sighted subjects considered the people who are blind to be inferior and marginal, thus making integration between two groups almost impossible (Mehta, 1980). Sharma (2003) found significant differences in the level of aspiration of students who are visually impaired studying in an integrated and exclusive setting in Delhi, India. Chauhan (1990) indicated that high academic self-esteem helps in increasing educational achievement of the adolescents who are visually impaired studying in different educational settings in New Delhi, India. Kumar and Meena (1997) showed no significant differences in self-concept scores between the blind and sighted students in India. Ittyerah and Kumar (2007) conducted a study on the self concept of the children, adolescents and adults who are disabled in Lucknow, India and indicated that children had a more positive self concept than adults and adolescents.
Research on disability has generally ignored the influence of gender on disability especially in the lives of women (Asch and Fine, 1988; Hannaford, 1985) and in particular in India. The literature has suggested that self concept is an issue which impacts significantly on the well-being of students in general (Broderick and Blewitt, 2006; Hadley, Hair and Moore, 2008).Thus, this aspect is of particular importance in the special education context. There has been a dearth of studies which explore the self concept of the adolescents and adults with visual impairments in the Indian context. The literature suggests that several studies on visual impairment have been undertaken in southern and northern parts of India but not in the eastern parts of India (in particular in West Bengal) which this study seeks to explore. India is a culturally diverse country with unique and contrasting populations residing in different parts of the country. So the results obtained in a particular region of India cannot be generalized to the whole population and this necessitates the urgency to conduct research in the eastern part of India. Self concept has important implications for positive existence, a significant variable for achievement and positive development in the society in every sphere irrespective of being blind or sighted. Recognizing its wider coverage than any other trait of personality, self concept has been chosen for the present investigation for its important implication on general well-being of the adolescents who are sighted and blind. Since male, female, sighted and blind adolescents each have their own unique needs and characteristics, so it has been assumed that there would be significant differences amongst them in the different domains of their self-concept scores.
Aim and objectives of the study
The study first aims to ascertain the nature of self concept of the adolescents who are sighted and blind in terms of gender and second to compare the self concept of the sighted and the adolescents who are blind in India.
The Objectives were:
To ascertain whether self concept of the sighted adolescents varies with respect to gender.
To ascertain whether self concept of the adolescents who are blind varies with respect to gender.
To ascertain whether self concept of the sighted adolescents differ with that of the adolescents who are blind.
The hypotheses were:
Sighted male and female adolescents differ significantly with respect to the domains of self concept considered for the study.
Male adolescents who are blind differ significantly with female adolescents who are blind with respect to the domains of self concept considered for the study.
Sighted adolescents and adolescents who are blind differ significantly with respect to all the domains of self concept.
Research design
The sample (N = 160) have been drawn by random sampling from 100 sighted adolescents (50 male, 50 female) and 60 adolescents who are visually impaired (30 male, 30 female) from the selected schools of West Bengal.
Only those adolescents with vision impairment were included whose visual acuity did not exceed 6/60 or 20/200 and partially sighted individuals have been excluded from the study. The schools included were from all the districts of West Bengal (Eastern part of India) selected on the basis of stratified random sampling. The samples were matched in terms of age, class of study, school, location and socio-economic status. The sample’s age ranged between 15–18 years, only standard 10 students who went to government schools were selected, sighted adolescents from regular mainstream schools and adolescents who are blind from special schools were chosen. The location of the schools was in the urban metropolitan areas and the socio-economic status of the samples was moderate.
As well as the collection of general demographic and personal information, the Piers-Harris (1969), Children’s Self-Concept Scale was used. The test contains 80 items in all ‘yes’ or ‘no’ responses. The six sub-scales which are included in the self-concept scale are Behaviour, Intellectual and School status, Physical appearance and attributes, Anxiety, Popularity, Happiness and Satisfaction.
Results
The results illustrated the relative comparison of the self-concept scores (high, moderate and low) of the sighted adolescents in Table 1. It is evident from the result that overall only 13 percent of the adolescents had high self concept and about 87 percent adolescents ranged from moderate to low self concept. Moreover, a greater proportion of boys appeared to have a higher self concept than girls.
Relative comparison of the self-concept scores (high, moderate and low) of the sighted adolescents
The relative comparison of the self-concept scores (high, moderate and low) of the adolescents who are blind are shown in Table 2. It is evident from the result that overall only 5 percent of the adolescents who are blind had high self concept and about 94 percent adolescents who are blind ranged from moderate to low self concept.
Relative comparison of the self-concept scores (high, moderate and low) of the adolescents who are blind
The mean, standard deviation (SD) and t-test scores of sighted male and female adolescents are shown in Table 3. Significant differences in which sighted males had a higher self concept than sighted females were found in: intellectual and school status, physical appearance and attributes, and happiness and satisfaction (as well as overall self concept). It was only on the ‘behaviour’ subscale in which sighted females had a significantly higher self concept than sighted males.
Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), t-test values for Self-Concept Scale along with its 6 components scores of the sighted adolescents (N = 100) of West Bengal with respect to gender
significant at .01 level
significant at .05 level
The mean, standard deviation (SD) and t-test scores of blind male and female adolescents are shown in Table 4. It was only on the ‘behaviour’ subscale that significant differences were found between male and female adolescents who are blind. Males were found to have a higher behaviour self concept than females (the reverse of the finding for the sighted groups).
Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), and t-test values for Self-Concept Scale along with its 6 components scores of the adolescent students who are blind in West Bengal
significant at .01 level
significant at .05 level
The mean, standard deviation (SD) and t-test scores of sighted and blind adolescents are shown in Table 5. Significant differences in which the sighted group had a higher self concept than the blind group were found in: physical appearance and attributes, popularity, and happiness and satisfaction (as well as overall self concept). The blind group was not found to have a significantly higher self concept than the sighted group on any of the subscales.
Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), and t-test values for Self-Concept Scale along with its 6 component scores of the sighted adolescents and adolescents who are blind in West Bengal
significant at .01 level
significant at .05 level
Discussion
In terms of the first aim and hypothesis, the results illustrated that the total self concept of the sighted male adolescents was more than the sighted female adolescents. These results confirmed the findings of other studies that found significant differences between the overall self-concept scores of male and female adolescents (Jackson, Hodge and Ingram, 1994; López-Justicia and Pichardo, 2003; Mboya, 1994). However, they contradicted the findings of Garaigordobil and Bernarás (2009) who found no significant sex differences in the self concept of adolescents. However, of more relevance is what is revealed when self-concept subscales are contrasted. Findings indicate that gender differences appear to exist to different degrees (and in different directions) for different aspects of self concept.
In terms of the second aim and hypothesis, there were no significant differences between the total self-concept scores of the male and female adolescents who are blind. These results were in keeping with the data found in the studies of Garaigordobil and Bernarás (2009) and Paulinelli and Tamayo (1986). However, the results were contradictory with the research conducted by López-Justicia and Pichardo (2003) where the males scored higher than the females in the social self concept. In the current study, the male adolescents with visual impairment were found to score higher than their female counterparts in the ‘Behaviour’ domain but in the ‘Popularity’ domain (which could well be similar to the ‘Social’ self concept used in López-Justicia and Pichardo (2003) study) no significant gender difference was found. There was also no significant gender difference in regard to ‘Physical Appearance’ domain (in contrast to the sighted group). The results of the present study agree with those obtained in studies that focused on gender differences among adolescents with normal vision. More specifically, a review of studies showed that young women’s physical self concept was lower than that of young men (Marsh and Hattie, 1996; Orenstein, 1994).
Previous studies of adolescents with visual impairment have indicated that males scored higher than the females in the ‘Behaviour’ domain of self concept, primarily, it has been argued, because males were subject to better treatment and facilities from childhood than females and due to traditional gender role stereotypes in the Indian context (Ghai, 2003). Panda (2005) has argued that this situation was more applicable in case of sighted adolescents. However, results from this study seem to contradict these views. Firstly, for sighted adolescents a reversal is found with females appearing to have significantly higher self concept than males. Nevertheless, the opposite is true for the blind group.
In terms of the third aim and hypothesis, the adolescents who are sighted scored significantly higher in the total self-concept scores as compared to the adolescents who are blind. These overall data are in the same direction as those of other investigators (Beaty, 1992; Lifshitz, Hen and Weisse, 2007). However, other studies found no significant differences in the self-concept scores between sighted and visually impaired adolescents (Fok and Fung, 2004; Garaigordobil and Bernarás, 2009; Griffin-Shirley and Nes, 2005; Jervis, 1959; Obiakor and Stile, 1989). The differences may be related to the instruments employed in the different studies because some of them assess global self concept, whereas others explore the differentiated dimensions of self concept. Indeed, when subscales of self concept are examined carefully, more interesting findings are revealed (discussed below).
In terms of the overall self-concept score, it has been argued that individuals with disabilities are still considered a burden to the Indian society and are neglected (Ghai, 2003; Halder, 2008, 2009). A child with disabilities may be exposed from birth to views that they are inferior and incapable which is reflected in drops in overall self concept. The societal pressure on adolescents who are disabled is believed to contribute to loss of self-esteem (Kef, 2002). As a result, their self concept suffered in comparison to the sighted individuals. Since others perceive and react to the individual at least partially in terms of their physical appearance, so in the case of the adolescents with visual impairment this aspect was low when compared to their sighted peers. They were found to be low on the scale of popularity and also on happiness and satisfaction measure, an important requirement for the development of positive self concept in an individual. Thus their over-all self-concept score was found to be low in comparison to the sighted (Fichten et al., 1991). The adolescents with visual impairment were found to be low on the Popularity domain when compared to their sighted peers because, perhaps, they were too shy to interact as a result of their disability perceived by others. Kef (1997) reached similar conclusions that adolescents who were blind had the smallest social network. Literature in the areas of well-being, depression, mental health, and studies of the psychosocial impacts of visual impairment on adolescents suggest that social isolation and perceptions of disability by others can impact on the self-esteem of adolescents with visual impairment (Hatlen, 2004; Kef, 2002). This may be an explanation for the findings in this study. Potential solutions may lie in physical well-being, strong friendship and family networks, and encouragement by adults towards independence (Kef and Dekovic, 2004; Koenes and Karshmer, 2000; Rosenblum, 2000). Positive perceptions of disability and inclusion can also have a helpful impact (Kef, 2002).
Adolescence is a complex stage of life in which psychological and physical changes begin and is characterized by a period of heightened turbulence and stress (Broderick and Blewitt, 2006). Some psychologists believe that adolescents’ self concepts are frequently troubled. Rosenberg (1986) for example, argues that the adolescent is more likely than younger or older people to develop an unhealthy self concept. Harter (1990) believes that the more advanced reasoning self skills of the adolescent influence self concept in both positive and negative ways. If impairment (in this case, lack of vision) is added to this difficult situation, it may become a very complicated stage of life, in which individuals need all the help and understanding that can be provided. Although exploratory, the results of this study will assist teachers and special educators to understand the areas in which the students need help and support, paying particular attention to the areas of ‘physical appearance and attributes’, ‘popularity’, and ‘happiness and satisfaction’ (areas in which blind adolescents may be particularly vulnerable to low self concept) as well as noting potential difference between boys and girls.