Practise Love and Follow Christ: The Profound Relevance of Romans to Holistic Mission

Introduction

Paul’s letter to the Romans has been traditionally read by Protestant Christians through the lens of justification by faith. This reading, while undoubtedly important, means that people tend to think that Romans is relevant to holistic mission only in the so-called ‘spiritual matters’. That is, the letter has more to do with how people can enter into a relationship with God than how the church can participate in caring for the poor and tackling unjust social systems. But recent research in biblical scholarship has increased our understanding of the poverty-stricken community of Christ in ancient Rome. This provides fresh insights into how Romans should be understood, which may, in turn, have significant implications to holistic mission.

In the following I will first outline the findings in recent research regarding the socioeconomic background of ancient Rome. I will then suggest how this background can help us understand two passages in Romans that are very relevant to holistic mission. First, Romans 12:9–21 speaks of Paul’s vision of a counter-cultural multi-ethnic community that practises love and defies the contemporary hierarchical social system. Second, the citation of Psalm 69:9 in Romans 15:3 speaks of a holistic salvation that is comforting to those suffering from poverty and oppression. I will argue that Romans calls the church today to follow Christ’s self-giving way of life, and in doing so it fulfils God’s call to engage in holistic mission.

Socioeconomic Hardships and Injustices in Rome

For some time, in biblical scholarship, it was believed that people in Paul’s churches did not necessarily live in poverty. For example, TE Schmidt said in 1993 that ‘there may have been very few who were poor by first-century standards’. ¹ Schmidt is probably influenced by the views of earlier scholars like Gerd Theissen. ² It was believed that the Pauline churches consisted of a cross-section of urban society, with a large number of artisans and traders – who, in turn, were relatively wealthy. This view, however, has been disputed recently. For instance, Justin Meggitt says,

The Pauline Christians en masse shared fully the bleak material existence which was the lot of more than 99% of the inhabitants of the [Roman] Empire. ³

The skilled artisans, although being the relatively wealthy among the common people (plebs urbana), lived at, or near, subsistence level. They struggled daily to earn enough to avoid starvation. ⁴

Several respected scholars, such as Gerd Theissen and Dale Martin, have been part of this renewed debate. ⁵ Although there are significant disagreements on several matters, most, including Theissen and Martin, agree that the majority of the earliest Christians belonged to the lower classes, ⁶ which means that the majority of them were poor. In a publication in 2004, Steven Friesen suggests that the elites consisted of less than 3% of the population, and 90% of people in Rome lived just above, at, or below subsistence level. That is, most of them could just manage to stay above the minimum economic level to sustain life, or were indeed destitute. ⁷ Their lives were hardly secure or free from anxiety, even though some of them did enjoy greater economic stability than the poorest of the poor. Most recently (2010), Bruce Longenecker revised Friesen’s figures to 3% of population being elites, and 82% living just above, at, or below subsistence level. ⁸ But importantly, Longenecker believes that within the Christ-community in urban settings, there would be virtually no-one in the elite group. Roughly 65% of them would be ‘marked out by subsistence level existence’, ⁹ and 25% would have ‘some minimal economic resources’. ¹⁰ But for people in this latter group, they ‘would clearly have been conscious of their economic vulnerability and their proximity to poverty.’ ¹¹ People like Priscilla and Aquila would probably belong to this group. ¹² It does not, however, mean that the followers of Jesus in Rome were all destitute. Longenecker estimates that about 10% in the Christ-community would have ‘moderate surplus’, although ‘not without economic risk’. ¹³ In short, most of the members of the Christ-community were poor.

Indeed, people in Rome were familiar with socioeconomic, political, ethnic and religious oppressions. Historians believe that there were food shortages, high infant mortality rate and short life expectancy in the Roman Empire. ¹⁴ It is estimated that about one third of the population in the Roman Empire were enslaved, in addition to many more of slave origin. ¹⁵ Many of them suffered from physical and sexual abuses. ¹⁶ A significant portion of Rome’s population consisted of non-Roman war captives or their descendants. ¹⁷ They suffered from the experience of subjugation, loss of property, loss of dignity and geographical displacement as a result of Roman conquests. They were subjected to slavery and the associated repression and degradation. ¹⁸ This, in part, accounted for Rome’s highly multicultural society, with many non-Roman citizens suffering from social and racial discriminations. ¹⁹ Christians’ non-participation in pagan festivals also put them in danger of religious persecution. ²⁰ The imperial cult would have caused concerns for the followers of Jesus in Rome. ²¹ In short, the early Christians in Rome experienced all sorts of injustices, and such historical background cannot be ignored when interpreting Romans. ²²

The above picture of ancient Rome would be familiar to development practitioners today. High infant mortality rate and short life expectancy are common in low-income countries. War and violence cause geographic displacement and loss of property. Human trafficking and the associated physical and sexual exploitation are all too common today. Religious, political and racial oppression still occurs in many parts of the world. Without sufficient debt release and a concerted effort to meet the Millennium Development Goals, the economic power imbalance between rich and poor nations will continue. The parallels between the social background of Romans and the situation in low-income countries today mean that the letter can be immensely relevant to holistic mission. Much can be explored, but space only allows me to examine two passages in Romans, which will be discussed one by one below. ²³

Practise Love, Mutuality and Solidarity

In light of the socioeconomic hardships and injustices experienced by the audience of Paul’s letter, Romans 12:9–21 would have been very relevant to them. Here, I will first look at the context of the passage, and then highlight a few key words in the passage that link the letter to the audience’s experience in imperial Rome. After that I will outline two characteristics of Paul’s vision for the Christian community in Rome.

Romans 12:9–21 is part of the large section 12:1–15:13. In this section the apostle delineates how the Jew-Gentile Christian community should live, ²⁴ given the fact that they are in Christ and in light of the inter-group conflict between the strong and the weak (14:1–23). Most likely, ‘the strong’ were primarily Gentile Christ-followers in Rome, and ‘the weak’ were mainly Jewish. ²⁵ Paul’s reference to this inter-group conflict reflects an important message of his gospel: Through Christ, God has inaugurated a new age in which salvation is available to the Gentiles, so that they may be included into the people of God; while at the same time God remains faithful to ethnic Israel (see 1:16–17; 3:3; 11:1). For Paul, the gospel is based on the atoning sacrifice of Christ (3:21–26; 8:3), and God’s salvific purpose is to gather a Jew-Gentile community whose right standing with God depends not on works of the Law but faith in the faithfulness of Christ (3:21–31). ²⁶ This community comprises the ‘true Jews’, according to Romans 2:28–29. But this does not mean that the election of Israel through God’s covenant with Abraham is now nullified. The Gentiles, being the in-grafted branches, need to realize that God’s covenantal faithfulness to Israel still stands (11:11–32; especially 11:25–27). The outworking of this gospel is that the Gentiles are not to despise the Jewish members of the community because of the latter’s Torah-based dietary practice (14:1–4, 13–18).

In light of this salvific purpose of God for Israel and the world, in 12:9–21 Paul specifically instructs the Jew-Gentile community in Rome to love sincerely and persevere in affliction. It is here that we find specific key words that refer to suffering – words that would invoke emotions and/or memories of the socioeconomic hardships and injustices they suffer from at present and in the recent past.

The word ‘affliction’ (θλĩψις) in 12:12, for example, would be one of those words that the audience can identify with during food shortages in Rome, when an infant dies because there is no safe drinking water, or when a slave is ill-treated. The verb ‘persecute’ (διώκω) in 12:14 would have invoked images of Roman brutality in the minds of the former war-captives (or their descendants) in the audience. It would also point to the threat of persecution the audience faced as followers of Christ. ²⁷ The term ‘evil’ (πονηρός or κακός) appears four times in 12:9–21. The audience is of course familiar with the presence of evil in this world, which is the ultimate cause of the sufferings they face. Finally, the language of perseverance (as in the verb ) and hope in 12:12 is of course often used in Romans in the context of suffering (e.g. 5:1–5; 8:20, 24). In short, Romans 12:9–21 is loaded with references to hardships and tribulations that the audience would hardly miss given their circumstances.

In light of these circumstances, Romans 12:9–21 can be read as Paul’s vision for the Christian community in imperial Rome – a vision that would prepare the community to face their present hardships and injustices. Two prominent interconnected characteristics of that community can be identified.

First and foremost, Paul envisions a community that practises love and mutuality. The Roman Christians are called to ‘love one another with mutual affection; outdo one another in showing honour’, and ‘associate with the lowly’ (12:10, 16; NRSV). The society in ancient Rome is highly hierarchical. Slaves do not receive mutual affection from free people. Those in relatively high positions in the social ladder do not normally give honour to those in the lower classes. ²⁸ Also, it is likely, as Reasoner and Jewett suggest, that the terms ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ in Romans 14:1–23 could well be understood as designations of social status in Rome – as the language of ‘despise’ in 14:3, 10 indicates. ²⁹ This means that the inter-group conflict in the Jew-Gentile community could have manifested itself in some form of social intimidation. ³⁰

In 12:9–21, Paul astonishingly envisages a huge status-reversal to take place. ³¹ In this community the slaves could find refuge and no-one should be discriminated because of their ethnicity. Hostilities between ethnic and social groups were to be dissolved through love and mutual bestowal of honour. ‘The strong’ are not to despise ‘the weak’. The instruction to outdo one another in showing honour is striking. As Peter Oakes says,

Paul’s call implies giving each person honour individually, rather than all honour just being rolled up into the householder’s honour. It implies the slave-owners giving honour to their slaves. In first-century terms this is outrageous. ³²

And Paul’s demand is relentless in that he wants love to be practised in the community’s interactions with outsiders. Romans 12:9–21 starts with the command ‘Let love be genuine; hate what is evil, hold fast to what is good’. This notion comes to the fore in verses 17–21, which are quite clearly about how the community of Christ is to interact with outsiders. ³³ They are to overcome evil with good, not to take revenge but leave room for God’s wrath. Thus war-captives and their descendants are to live peacefully with their Roman oppressors. The socially and ethnically despised are to overcome the evil of marginalization by doing good rather than avenging themselves. This is a big ask for the many members of the community who are all too familiar with injustice and suffering. But most likely the military might of imperial Rome and the strong hierarchical social structure would have made it impossible for the small Christ-community to initiate large-scale social change without seriously endangering their own livelihood. Yet they know that they are to love their enemies because God has already shown them mercy (12:1), and that they can find comfort and refuge in a community that practises love and mutuality.

Second, Paul envisions a community that is characterized by mutual sharing and solidarity, which is of course based on the command to love sincerely. He asks the community in Rome to share (κοινωνέω) with those in need, practise hospitality and mourn with those who mourn (12:13, 15). That is, they are to mourn with those who have lost young children from malnutrition and diseases. They are to stand in solidarity with the poor and needy by sharing their economic resources. In this community, according to Paul’s vision, the destitute should have no fear of starvation, and the chronically sick will be cared for and not left alone. Jewish and Gentile Christ-followers are not to look down on each other because of their differences in religious-cultural practice. If the terms ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ do carry social-status nuances (as suggested above), then the Gentile members of the community are not to despise the Jews or see themselves as socially superior. This type of community is set in sharp contrast to the socioeconomic inequality and injustice that is taken for granted within the social system in Rome. This rather counter-cultural way of life is of course the outworking of the desire to practise love and mutuality.

The relevance of this reading of Romans 12:9–21 to holistic mission is obvious. Just as the social and economic background of ancient Rome is similar to what those who are involved in holistic mission today, Paul’s teaching in Romans 12 would be relevant to the Christian communities in low-income countries in the 21st century. Among the poor in the Global South, holistic mission involves the formation of many local Christ-communities characterized by love, mutuality and solidarity. Christians in these communities are called to outdo one another in honouring the marginalized and oppressed – the homeless, those living with HIV/AIDS, and those living with disability. They welcome and give honour to the refugees and asylum seekers – regardless of their ethnicity. Both the well-to-do and the poor honour one another with mutual affection, and they share their material resources together so that no-one will be destitute. These communities are truly the light of the world. In the face of wars, violence, racial hatred and socioeconomic oppressions, they are called to seek to overcome evil with good (just as the Christ-followers in ancient Rome are asked to do good in the face of evil). They do not seek revenge, knowing that vengeance belongs to God alone (cf. verse 19).

In short, Paul envisions an alternative community that is characterized by mutual love and solidarity – a value system that is set in sharp contrast to that of the dominant culture of the day, both then and now. Romans is not only about how sinful humans can have a restored relationship with their Creator God. It is also about how the multicultural people of God may live relationally within the Christ-community and with the world.

A Holistic Salvation

The above discussion has shown that recent scholarship has given us fresh insight into the social background of the Christian community in ancient Rome, and that such background can be a useful interpretive lens to read Romans today in the context of holistic mission. One example used above is Romans 12:9–21, which highlights several characteristics of a counter-cultural community that Paul envisions. The second example can be found in Paul’s use of Psalm 69:9 in Romans 15:3, which will be the subject matter for discussion here. In Romans 15:3, Paul cites Psalm 69:9 and says,

For Christ did not please himself; but, as it is written, ‘The insults of those who insult you have fallen on me’. ³⁴

The following will examine two matters. First, it will look at the concept of salvation found in Psalm 69, which, as it will be argued, is holistic and profoundly relevant to Paul’s audience in Rome. Second, it will seek to answer the question: What is the theological basis for practising love and solidarity in the face of economic hardships and social injustices? It is, as it will be shown, ultimately based on the earliest church’s conviction that they are called to follow Jesus by modelling after his way of life.

Psalm 69 is remarkably relevant to Paul’s audience, for it speaks of the type of salvation they long for. ³⁵ The noun ‘salvation’ (σωτηρία) occurs twice in the Psalm (69:13, 29), and the verb ‘save’ (σῴζω) appears three times (69:1, 14, 35). More specifically, 69:29 speaks of the poverty and pain suffered by the psalmist. Psalm 69:35–36 talks about the salvation of Zion and Israel’s repossession of her cities, which clearly refers to Yahweh’s promise of restoration after the exile. ³⁶ And Psalm 69:1, 13, 14 are the Psalmist’s plead for God’s deliverance from danger and enemies. We have seen that Paul’s audience is familiar with poverty, physical and emotional pain, geographical displacement and dispossession because of Roman conquests – experiences similar to those of the exiles of Israel. Hence they can easily identify with the psalmist’s yearning for salvation. In other words, the Psalm would have aptly expressed their lament, protest and pleads for deliverance. Also, the type of salvation that the psalmist asks for would have been similar to that of Paul’s audience, which includes deliverance from poverty, physical hardship, social and religious oppression.

Of course the citation of Psalm 69:9 in Romans 15:3 needs to be read within the context of 14:1–23, which is about the intra-communal conflict between the strong and the weak. The audience is asked to follow Christ’s example of not pleasing himself but pleasing others. The Gentile members of the community must not despise the Jewish members, for the Gentiles are incorporated into God’s people only as the in-grafted branches and so there can be no boasting (11:17–18). Romans 15:1–13 must also be read in light of the entire section 12:1–15:13, which is about a love-centred way of life both within the community and in terms of the community’s interaction with outsiders. As the above analysis of 12:9–21 has shown, this way of life enables the Christ-community to endure hardships in imperial Rome. Now towards the end of the section 12:1–15:13, Paul uses a Psalm to encourage the community to identify with Christ himself. By citing Psalm 69, Paul applies a prayer in Israel’s Scripture to Jesus – a Psalm that is loaded with petitions for God’s rescue and deliverance – and at the same time asks his audience to identify themselves with Jesus. In doing so the audience finds themselves praying what the psalmist prays, and longing for the same type of holistic salvation the psalmist longs for. Jesus endured insults, just as the psalmist did. And just as Jesus endured insults and waited on Yahweh’s vindication, the audience is to endure suffering and injustice, and wait on God for his salvation and vindication. No wonder immediately after the citation of Psalm 69:9, Paul says,

For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, so that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope. (Romans 15:4; NRSV)

This verse indicates that the citation of Psalm 69 in verse 3 functions as a scriptural encouragement and instruction for the audience. The Psalm profoundly invites the audience to lament and petition for God’s salvation through identifying themselves with Christ. The citation is not a random selection of scriptural material for Paul to make a point, but a strategic use of authoritative sacred text for a rhetorical purpose towards the end of the letter’s argument. Paul has begun the letter by saying that the gospel is based on what God has promised through Israel’s Scripture (1:1–4). In 11:26–27, Paul cites Isaiah and Jeremiah to affirm God’s (renewed) covenant with Israel. ³⁷ Here towards the end of the letter, Paul cites a Psalm that refers to Yahweh’s promise of restoration after Israel’s exile. ³⁸ For Paul, the story of Israel and the gospel are inseparable, with the gathering of Gentiles being part of God’s salvific plan for Israel and the world. That is, ‘a hardening has come upon part of Israel, until the full number of the Gentiles has come in’. (11:25; NRVS). More specifically, it seems that the citation of Psalm 69:9 in Romans 15:3 is used to (among other things, such as giving hope) provide the theological basis for the Jew-Gentile community to practise love and solidarity despite the present hardships and injustices, and this underlying theology is the imperative for Christians to follow Jesus’ sacrificial life. The following will explain how this works.

Model after Christ’s Sacrificial Life

The sense of identification with Christ’s suffering is demonstrated by the fact that Psalm 69:9 is evidently used to refer to Jesus’ suffering, and that he suffered as a righteous person. ³⁹ A close look at Psalm 69 and the Gospels will make this clear. References to Psalm 69 are found in all four Gospels – in passages that speak of Christ’s suffering on the cross (Mt 27:34; Mk 15:23; Lk 23:36; Jn 19:29). Even though the psalmist is not sinless (Ps 69:5), the overall message of the Psalm seems to be that she/he is suffering despite her/his righteousness. In Jewish literature the term ‘insult’ often refers to the undeserved scorn received by righteous sufferers – that is, people such as Jeremiah and Tobit who endured suffering and injustice despite their obedience and faithfulness to God (e.g. Jer 15:15; 20:8; Tob 3:6, 13, 15). In both Matthew and Mark Jesus is also said to have endured insults at his crucifixion, and that those who receive insults as a result of following him will be blessed (Mt 5:11; 27:44; Mk 15:32).

In light of these observations, it is very likely that, by way of Psalm 69:9, Paul applies the Jewish notion of ‘righteous sufferer’ to Jesus and the Christian community. That is, the followers of Jesus are to faithfully identify with his suffering and self-giving love, just as he suffered on the cross because of his love for them. By modelling after Jesus’ way of life, the Christ-community in Rome are not only to accept one another (in view of their inter-group conflict in 14:1–23), they are also to love one another with mutual affection, outdo each other in showing honour (including honouring the poor and despised), and associate with the lowly (12:10, 16). In addition, by modelling after Jesus’ faithful endurance in the face of suffering, they learn to be patient in affliction and joyful in hope (12:12). From the vantage point of Paul’s audience – who is familiar with socioeconomic, religious, political and racial oppression – practising love and solidarity in the face of hardship is ultimately about modelling after Christ’s suffering and his way of life. ⁴⁰ In other words, the call for Christians to practise love and mutuality is based on the call to model our lives after Christ’s way of life. In fact, this notion has already been explicitly expressed in Romans 8:17, which says that they who are co-heirs with Christ are to share in his suffering, so that they may be glorified with him. There should be no doubt that Christ’s sacrificial life is the life pattern that Christians should follow.

Summary and Final Remarks

The above discussion has argued that the majority of the Christians in imperial Rome suffered from socioeconomic hardships and injustices. This historical background means that Romans can be immensely relevant to holistic mission today. Two passages in Romans, namely, 12:9–21 and 15:3, have been examined. They speak of Paul’s vision of a Christian community that seeks to practise love, mutuality and solidarity. They also speak of a holistic salvation that the audience would have longed for. And the theological foundation of all these is the earliest church’s conviction that the Christ-community is to follow Jesus’ sacrificial life. This same conviction will inspire Christians today to engage in holistic mission by creating local Christian communities around the world that are characterized by love and solidarity with the poor. They are communities that provide refuge for the oppressed in places where there are social injustice and power imbalance, and they do so by living out a counter-cultural value system that is Christ-centred and empowered by love. The message of Romans is not only about how people can have a relationship with God. It is also about the call of God for his people to follow Christ’s sacrificial life and fulfil his call to holistic mission.

Admittedly the notions of love, solidarity and following Jesus’ way of life are not entirely new to Christians who engage in holistic mission. But, given the fact that Romans plays an important part in the theology of many Christians today, it is hoped that the forgoing discussion will bring fresh insights into how to interpret the letter and how it can be immensely relevant to holistic mission principles and practice.