Abstract
Marital relationships play a central role in psychological well-being across adulthood, yet prior research has rarely integrated personality, motivational, and relational factors as components of a single interpersonal system. To address this gap, this study—guided by social–cognitive and dynamic-systems perspectives—applied network analysis to examine how personality traits, approach–avoidance goals, spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment are interconnected within a dynamic interpersonal system. Flow network analysis was further used to identify how these dispositional, motivational, and relational factors were directly and indirectly linked to life satisfaction and psychological distress. Participants were 502 married South Korean adults (M = 54.43 years; 49.4% male). The resulting network revealed a closely connected triad of approach goals, spousal support, and marital adjustment, suggesting that motivational and relational factors form a cohesive system underlying marital functioning. Marital adjustment and approach goals emerged as the most central and bridging nodes, linking dispositional, motivational, and relational domains. Flow network analysis indicated that life satisfaction was directly associated with marital adjustment, spousal support, approach goals, higher extraversion, and lower neuroticism, whereas psychological distress was directly associated with higher neuroticism, lower marital adjustment, and stronger avoidance goals. Together, these findings indicate that psychological well-being is shaped by structurally differentiated configurations of dispositional, motivational, and relational factors, rather than by additive or dominant-factor effects within any single domain.
Introduction
Supportive social relationships are fundamental to psychological well-being, fostering belonging, emotional security, and adaptive functioning across the lifespan (Berkman et al., 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2001). Among these, the spousal relationship—characterized by intimacy, stability, and mutual interdependence—plays an especially enduring role because it provides sustained emotional and instrumental support (Antonucci, 2001). Although marriage is often linked to psychological and physical benefits, accumulating evidence suggests that the quality of marital relationships is more consequential for well-being than marital status itself (Umberson & Thomeer, 2020). This pattern becomes particularly salient in midlife and later adulthood, when well-being increasingly reflects the cumulative influence of long-term relational experiences (Bell & Harsin, 2018). High-quality marriages have been consistently associated with greater life satisfaction (Carr et al., 2014), fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms (Goldfarb & Trudel, 2019; Postler et al., 2022), reduced loneliness (Stokes, 2017), and overall enhanced well-being (Shin & Gyeong, 2022).
Building on these findings, researchers have increasingly sought to identify the intrapersonal and interpersonal mechanisms that sustain marital quality and psychological health. Among these mechanisms, personality traits—particularly those delineated by the Five-Factor Model—are among the most consistent correlates of relationship functioning. Higher neuroticism tends to coincide with greater conflict and dissatisfaction, whereas conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and openness are generally associated with higher marital adjustment (Mund & Neyer, 2021; O’Meara & South, 2019; Sayehmiri et al., 2020). Beyond dispositional traits, motivational orientations shape how individuals approach, interpret, and navigate relational experiences. Individuals guided by approach goals, which emphasize closeness and relational growth, tend to experience greater emotional attunement and satisfaction (Impett et al., 2010; Shimshock & Le, 2022), whereas those oriented toward avoidance goals, focused on preventing rejection or conflict, report lower intimacy and heightened distress (Elliot et al., 2006; Kuster et al., 2017). In addition to these intrapersonal influences, daily exchanges of spousal support and strain serve as proximal relational processes that directly contribute to marital outcomes: supportive interactions correspond to positive affect and mutual responsiveness, whereas strain undermines emotional regulation and amplifies negative partner perceptions (Delatorre et al., 2022; Işık & Kaya, 2022).
Marital processes in South Korea unfold within a cultural context that differs in meaningful ways from Western settings where most marital research has been conducted. Korean relational norms emphasize interdependence, harmony maintenance, and the fulfillment of family roles (Choi & Kim, 2006). These cultural values shape how spouses perceive and respond to daily relational experiences, including support, conflict, and emotional expression (Lim & Lee, 2016). For example, efforts to maintain closeness and relational harmony are culturally encouraged, whereas overt conflict or direct emotional confrontation may be avoided to preserve family cohesion. These norms may, in turn, influence how personality traits, motivational orientations, and perceptions of support and strain manifest within marital relationships. Incorporating this cultural context helps clarify why examining the interplay of dispositional, motivational, and relational processes among South Korean married adults is theoretically meaningful and necessary for understanding how interpersonal dynamics operate across diverse cultural settings.
Despite extensive evidence for these associations, most studies have examined personality, motivation, and relationship processes separately or in pairwise combinations, limiting our understanding of how these elements jointly operate within the broader marital system. Drawing on social–cognitive theory (Andersen & Chen, 2002; Bandura, 2001), personality traits, motivational orientations, and relational experiences can be conceptualized as reciprocally interacting systems that co-regulate behavior, affect, and adaptation within close relationships. Complementing this view, a dynamic-systems perspective emphasizes that dispositions, motivations, and relational experiences function as interdependent components of an evolving interpersonal ecology that jointly shape patterns of support, strain, and adjustment, which in turn influence psychological well-being (Back et al., 2011, 2023). Together, these frameworks provide a theoretical rationale for viewing marital functioning as a dynamic and self-organizing system and underscore the need for analytic approaches capable of capturing multiple, simultaneous interrelations among psychological and relational variables.
The network analytic approach provides an empirical instantiation of this theoretical perspective by modeling reciprocal and interdependent associations among psychological and relational constructs. Rather than positing unidirectional or latent-variable relations, it conceptualizes variables as mutually connected elements within an interconnected system (Borsboom et al., 2017; Robinaugh et al., 2016). Originally applied in psychopathology to reveal how symptoms co-activate and sustain one another (Fried et al., 2015; Isvoranu et al., 2017), this framework has more recently been extended to personality and social relationship research to uncover structural interrelations among traits, goals, and interpersonal dynamics (Contreras et al., 2019; Costantini et al., 2019; Di Fabio et al., 2022). Network analysis moves beyond traditional correlational or latent-variable models by quantifying the interdependencies among observed variables and identifying higher-order structural features, such as clusters, bridging nodes, and patterns of co-activation that are not detectable through regression-based or SEM approaches. In doing so, it offers a systems-level understanding of how dispositional, motivational, and relational factors cohere to shape marital functioning and psychological well-being.
Guided by this perspective, the present study examined how personality traits, approach–avoidance goals, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment are interconnected within the marital systems of middle-aged and older adults. We also investigated how these dispositional, motivational, and relational factors relate directly and indirectly to life satisfaction and psychological distress using flow network analysis to delineate potential pathways of association within the broader system. This integrative framework highlights which factors are most central within the network and which serve as bridges linking distinct psychological and relational domains.
Personality traits as individual dispositions
Personality encompasses the dynamic and integrative organization of enduring patterns in behavior, emotion, and cognition that shape individuals’ internal representations of the self and others. These representations guide interpersonal functioning and underlie the capacity to form intimate, empathic, and enduring relationships (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Kernberg, 2016). Among contemporary models, the Five-Factor Model (FFM) remains the most widely accepted framework, describing five broad dimensions: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (McCrae & Costa, 2008). These traits have been consistently linked to the quality of close relationships, particularly in the context of marital functioning (Heller et al., 2004; Mund & Neyer, 2021; Sayehmiri et al., 2020).
Marital quality is typically conceptualized either as marital satisfaction—individuals’ subjective evaluations of their relationships—or as marital adjustment, a broader construct encompassing satisfaction, cohesion, and consensus (Delatorre & Wagner, 2020). Among the Big Five traits, neuroticism consistently emerges as the strongest correlate of poorer marital outcomes, as supported by recent meta-analyses (Esplin et al., 2025; Sayehmiri et al., 2020). Individuals high in neuroticism tend to exhibit greater emotional reactivity, heightened sensitivity to negative interpersonal cues, and tendencies toward rumination and misinterpretation of partner behavior, all of which contribute to relational strain and lower satisfaction (Finn et al., 2013; Kreuzer & Gollwitzer, 2021; Mund & Neyer, 2021; Saeed Abbasi et al., 2018).
In contrast, agreeableness and conscientiousness are generally linked to more adaptive interpersonal functioning and higher marital quality. Agreeable individuals tend to be cooperative, empathetic, and responsive to their partners’ needs, whereas conscientious individuals exhibit reliability, self-regulation, and goal-directedness, which are qualities that facilitate constructive communication and long-term relational stability (Bouchard & Arseneault, 2005; Donnellan et al., 2004; Heller et al., 2004; O’Meara & South, 2019). Findings regarding openness to experience have been more mixed: while some studies report nonsignificant associations with marital adjustment (Heller et al., 2004; Malouff et al., 2010), others suggest a positive link, potentially reflecting the role of openness in fostering flexibility, perspective taking, and mutual understanding (Bouchard & Arseneault, 2005; Finn et al., 2013). Collectively, these findings highlight both the distinct and interactive roles of personality traits in shaping the quality and stability of marital relationships.
Approach-avoidance goals as interpersonal motivations
Goals are cognitive–affective constructs that organize and direct intentional behavior toward personally meaningful outcomes (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Within interpersonal contexts, goal orientations shape behavioral, cognitive, and emotional responses during social interactions. According to the social motivational model (Gable, 2006; Gable & Gosnell, 2013), two distinct yet relatively independent goal orientations guide interpersonal behavior: approach goals, reflecting the pursuit of intimacy, closeness, and relational growth, and avoidance goals, reflecting efforts to prevent conflict, rejection, or relational loss.
Previous research consistently shows that individuals with stronger approach motivations engage in more frequent and emotionally rewarding social interactions than those with stronger avoidance orientations (Gable, 2006; Nikitin & Schoch, 2021; Shimshock & Le, 2022). For instance, individuals high in hope for affiliation are more likely to initiate behaviors that promote closeness and connection, whereas those high in fear of rejection tend to adopt self-protective strategies aimed at minimizing relational threat (Nikitin & Freund, 2019). In marital contexts, approach goals have been associated with greater emotional intimacy, responsiveness, and satisfaction, whereas avoidance goals predict defensive communication, emotional withdrawal, and lower relationship quality (Gable & Impett, 2012; Kuster et al., 2017).
These motivational orientations also align with distinct personality profiles. Approach goals are typically linked to higher conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion—traits that foster social initiative, cooperation, and goal-directed engagement. Conversely, avoidance goals tend to correspond to higher neuroticism and lower conscientiousness and agreeableness, reflecting a personality configuration characterized by emotional reactivity and interpersonal sensitivity (Asanjarani et al., 2022; Chen & Zhang, 2011; McCabe et al., 2013). Although personality traits and interpersonal goals have each been associated with relational functioning (Joshanloo, 2022; Morstead et al., 2024), few studies have examined how these dispositional and motivational systems are jointly organized within the broader structure of close relationships. Examining their integration could illuminate how enduring traits and interpersonal motives coalesce to shape relational and psychological well-being.
Spousal support and strain as patterns of social interaction
Spousal support and strain represent fundamental dimensions of marital interaction that can either promote or hinder psychological and relational functioning. Social support broadly refers to the perceived or actual availability of care, validation, and assistance within one’s social network (Wills, 1991). Classic distinctions highlight informational, instrumental, and emotional forms of support, each contributing uniquely to adaptation and well-being (Taylor, 2011). Notably, perceived support—the belief that reliable and responsive help is available when needed—tends to show stronger links to psychological and relational outcomes than received support (Eagle et al., 2019; Prati & Pietrantoni, 2010). This suggests that perceptions of support reflect not only enacted behaviors but also enduring relational schemas formed through cumulative interpersonal experiences (Uchino et al., 2016). In contrast, social strain captures perceived interpersonal stressors such as criticism, conflict, or excessive demands (Rook, 1992). Like support, strain is cognitively constructed from ongoing exchanges and tends to accumulate over time, shaping individuals’ evaluations of relationship quality. Within marital relationships, perceived spousal support and strain have been consistently associated with core facets of marital adjustment, including satisfaction, cohesion, and consensus (Abbas et al., 2019; Işık & Kaya, 2022; Randall et al., 2023).
Personality traits contribute meaningfully to variations in these perceptions. Extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness are generally associated with higher perceived support, whereas neuroticism is linked to lower perceived support and greater perceived strain (Barańczuk, 2019; Morstead et al., 2024; Udayar et al., 2020). These associations indicate that personality shapes not only behavioral tendencies in social exchanges but also the cognitive-affective interpretations of those interactions. Beyond dispositional factors, social motivational orientations further inform perceptions of spousal dynamics. Individuals with strong approach goals are likely to interpret partner behaviors through a benevolent lens, reinforcing perceptions of warmth and support. Conversely, those with pronounced avoidance goals often exhibit heightened vigilance to potential rejection or conflict, perceiving greater strain even in ambiguous interactions (Gable, 2006; Gable & Impett, 2012; Kuster et al., 2017). Collectively, these findings suggest that dispositional and motivational systems jointly shape the interpretive frameworks through which individuals experience their marital relationships. Yet the combined organization of these factors and their joint role in shaping patterns of perceived support and strain remains insufficiently understood.
Marital adjustment and psychological health among middle-aged and older adults
The marital relationship represents one of the most enduring and emotionally salient bonds across adulthood. In midlife and later adulthood, its adaptive and supportive functions become particularly central to psychological well-being. This period of life is marked by biological, cognitive, and social transitions—such as hormonal changes, episodic memory decline, and shifting social priorities—that accompany the aging process (Lachman, 2004; McFadden & Rawson Swan, 2012). As posited by socioemotional selectivity theory, aging involves a motivational shift away from expansive, information-seeking social networks toward emotionally meaningful close relationships (Carstensen, 2021). Within this changing social ecology, the marital bond often serves as a primary source of emotional regulation, companionship, and psychological resilience.
Empirical evidence consistently demonstrates the protective role of high-quality marital relationships in midlife and beyond. Greater marital satisfaction and adjustment are linked not only to higher global life satisfaction and momentary positive affect (Carr et al., 2014) but also to physiological benefits, including reduced inflammation and more favorable aging biomarkers (Wilson et al., 2021). Well-adjusted marriages also buffer the psychological impact of later-life stressors, including caregiving demands and chronic illness, by promoting adaptive coping and emotional stability (Bookwala, 2012; Novak et al., 2023).
At the same time, individual dispositions and relational experiences remain central determinants of psychological health during mid- to late adulthood. Meta-analytic evidence indicates that personality traits robustly predict both subjective and objective well-being: neuroticism is consistently associated with heightened distress, whereas conscientiousness and extraversion are linked to greater resilience and life satisfaction (Anglim et al., 2020; Klein et al., 2011; Nikčević et al., 2021). Similarly, perceived spousal support is associated with higher happiness and psychological well-being (de la Rosa et al., 2024; Shin & Gyeong, 2023), whereas spousal strain predicts greater depressive symptoms and loneliness (Ermer & Proulx, 2022; Meyer et al., 2021).
Compared to personality and relational processes, motivational orientations—particularly approach and avoidance goals—have received relatively limited attention in midlife and older adulthood. Evidence from adult friendship and romantic contexts suggests that approach-oriented goals are associated with greater emotional closeness, reduced loneliness, and fewer physical symptoms, whereas avoidance goals predict lower relational satisfaction and higher psychological distress (Elliot et al., 2006). Yet no study to date has integrated personality traits, motivational orientations, and relational dynamics within a unified framework to examine their joint organization and associations with psychological well-being in this population. The present study addresses this gap by illuminating the dynamic and interconnected mechanisms through which personality, motivation, and social perceptions jointly contribute to marital quality and psychological well-being in middle and later adulthood. By integrating dispositional, motivational, and relational factors within a unified analytic framework, this study advances understanding of how enduring traits, goals, and relational experiences co-organize to shape psychological adjustment in marriage.
Although emotional exchanges and marital conflict are central to relationship functioning, the present study focuses on the broader dispositional and motivational structures that underlie and shape such affective dynamics over time. From a social–cognitive and dynamic-systems perspective (Andersen & Chen, 2002; Back et al., 2011, 2023; Bandura, 2001), enduring traits, motivational orientations, and relational perceptions—such as perceived spousal support and strain—constitute the regulatory systems through which emotional responsiveness and conflict tendencies emerge. By modeling these interrelated dispositions and relational patterns, this study aims to capture the enduring interpersonal architecture that gives rise to momentary affective processes in marriage.
Current study
Guided by social–cognitive and dynamic-systems perspectives (Back et al., 2011, 2023; Bandura, 2001), this study conceptualizes personality traits, interpersonal motivations, and perceived spousal support and strain as interdependent components of a broader interpersonal system that shapes marital functioning and psychological well-being. These perspectives highlight that dispositional, motivational, and relational processes mutually influence one another rather than acting independently. On this basis, we used network analysis to examine how these domains are jointly organized within the marital systems of middle-aged and older adults—a developmental period in which marital functioning becomes increasingly central to psychological well-being.
We pursued this aim through a two-step analytic strategy. First, we estimated a psychological network to characterize the interconnections among personality traits, interpersonal motivations, spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment. This approach reveals how multiple interrelated variables cluster together and identifies bridging processes that link different domains—patterns that traditional pairwise or latent-variable models may obscure. We then computed centrality indices, including node strength, bridge strength, and expected influence (Jones et al., 2021), to evaluate the relative importance of each variable within the network.
Methods
Participants
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ university and conducted in accordance with institutional ethical guidelines. Participants were recruited from a large online research panel comprising over 1.7 million South Korean adults with diverse demographic, socioeconomic, and clinical backgrounds. Invitations were distributed through the panel provider’s internal system and described the project as a study of social relationships and mental health. Individuals who met the eligibility criteria (aged 40–69 and currently married) and provided informed consent were directed to an online questionnaire.
A stratified random sampling procedure was used to ensure demographic representativeness by age and gender. Participants were stratified into six groups based on three age ranges (40–49, 50–59, and 60–69 years) and two gender categories (male and female). Eligible individuals from each stratum were randomly invited to participate between February 15 and 17, 2023. A total of 502 participants completed the full survey and comprised the analytic sample. Because the panel platform included only binary gender options (male/female), these were the categories available for analysis. All participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality. As data were obtained only from individuals who completed the entire survey, a formal completion rate could not be calculated. Consequently, analyses were performed on complete responses with no missing data.
The final sample consisted of 502 married adults (49.4% male) aged 40–69 years (M = 54.43, median = 54, SD = 8.14, range = 40–69). Because the study focused on spousal support and strain, only currently married adults were eligible. In terms of educational and socioeconomic background, 79.4% of participants held an undergraduate or graduate degree, 66.6% were employed, and 55.2% reported an annual household income exceeding $40,000 USD—approximately the national median household income in South Korea (Statistics Korea, 2022). Detailed demographic characteristics are presented in Table S1.
Sample size considerations
Recent methodological recommendations indicate that psychological network models of comparable complexity are typically estimated with adequate stability using samples of approximately 250–500 participants (Constantin et al., 2023). The present sample of 502 adults, therefore, meets established guidelines for reliable network estimation.
Measures
All psychological constructs were assessed using validated multi-item scales with established psychometric properties. To ensure reliability and validity within the present sample, we examined internal consistency using Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω and conducted confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) to verify the expected factor structures for each measure. Across instruments, reliability coefficients indicated acceptable to excellent internal consistency, and all CFAs supported the hypothesized dimensional structures. Together, these results and extensive prior evidence provide strong support for the validity and reliability of the IPIP-50, RDAS, SWLS, and DASS-21, used in this study.
Big-five personality traits
Personality traits were assessed using the 50-item International Personality Item Pool (IPIP-50; Goldberg, 1999), which measures the five broad domains: agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, openness to experience, and neuroticism. The IPIP-50 has demonstrated strong reliability and construct validity across diverse populations and has been widely used as a psychometrically robust alternative to the NEO-PI-R (e.g., Goldberg et al., 2006; Johnson, 2014). Each domain included 10 items (e.g., “Feel others’ emotions” for agreeableness; “Change my mood a lot” for neuroticism). Participants rated each item on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all true to 5 = very true), and mean scores were computed for each trait. Prior studies report high internal consistency for the IPIP-50 (e.g., α ≈ .80–.90; Goldberg et al., 2006; Nakić Radoš et al., 2025). In the present study, internal consistency was acceptable to excellent: agreeableness (α = .73, ω = .72), conscientiousness (α = .80, ω = .80), extraversion (α = .83, ω = .83), openness (α = .79, ω = .76), and neuroticism (α = .89, ω = .89). A confirmatory factor analysis supported a five-factor structure (χ2/df = 3.15, CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07). Standardized factor loadings ranged from .77 to .82 for agreeableness, .58 to .91 for conscientiousness, .62 to .87 for extraversion, .58 to .77 for openness, and .73 to .89 for neuroticism, indicating satisfactory convergent validity.
Approach-avoidance goals
Interpersonal motivation within the marital context was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from Elliot et al. (2006) and Gable (2006), comprising 4 items for approach goals and 4 for avoidance goals. Prior research has demonstrated strong construct validity, factor structure, and predictive utility of approach–avoidance goal measures in close relationships, including their associations with intimacy, responsiveness, communication patterns, and relationship satisfaction (Elliot et al., 2006; Gable & Impett, 2012; Impett et al., 2010; Kuster et al., 2017). Sample items include “Trying to deepen my relationship with my spouse” (approach) and “Trying to avoid disagreements and conflicts with my spouse” (avoidance). Participants rated each item on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = not at all true to 7 = always true), and mean scores were computed for each subscale. Prior research has reported adequate internal consistency for approach and avoidance goals in marital and romantic contexts (e.g., α ≈ .70–.80; Kuster et al., 2017). In the present study, internal consistency was excellent for both subscales (α = .97, ω = .97 for approach goals; α = .90, ω = .91 for avoidance goals). A confirmatory factor analysis supported the two-factor structure (χ2/df = 3.24, CFI = .98, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .01, SRMR = .04). Standardized factor loadings ranged from .92 to .95 for approach goals and .78 to .88 for avoidance goals, indicating strong convergent validity.
Spousal support and strain
Perceived support and strain within the marital relationship were assessed using the 7-item Spousal Support and Strain Scale (Smith et al., 2013), comprising 3 items for support and 4 items for strain. Extensive prior research has demonstrated the construct validity, two-factor structure, and predictive utility of perceived support and strain measures, showing strong links with marital quality, emotional well-being, and stress processes across adulthood (Smith et al., 2013; Uchino et al., 2012; Walen & Lachman, 2000). Participants rated how often each experience occurred on a 5-point scale (1 = not at all true to 5 = very true). Sample items include “How much does your spouse really understand the way you feel about things?” (support) and “How much does your spouse make too many demands on you?” (strain). Mean scores were calculated separately for each subscale. Prior research has reported good internal consistency for support and strain dimensions (e.g., α ≈ .78–.85; Wang et al., 2018). In the present study, internal consistency was strong for both dimensions (support: α = .86, ω = .84; strain: α = .83, ω = .82). A confirmatory factor analysis supported the two-factor structure (χ2/df = 1.67, CFI = .97, TLI = .94, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .04), with standardized loadings ranging from .72 to .84 for support and .76 to .82 for strain, indicating satisfactory convergent validity.
Marital adjustment
Marital quality was assessed using the Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale (RDAS; Busby et al., 1995), a 14-item measure encompassing three dimensions: consensus (6 items), satisfaction (4 items), and cohesion (4 items). The RDAS has been shown to possess strong construct validity, a clear three-factor structure, and strong discriminative ability between distressed and non-distressed couples, making it one of the most widely validated measures of marital adjustment (Busby et al., 1995; Crane et al., 2000). Items were rated on 6-point Likert-type scales (e.g., 0 = always disagree to 5 = always agree). An example item includes “Making major decisions” (consensus). Total scores (range: 0–69) were obtained by summing across all items, with higher scores indicating greater marital adjustment. Prior research has reported high internal consistency for the RDAS (e.g., α ≈ .85–.90; Bülbül et al., 2021). In the present study, internal consistency was high across all subscales: consensus (α = .87, ω = .88), satisfaction (α = .90, ω = .90), and cohesion (α = .89, ω = .90). A confirmatory factor analysis supported a three-factor structure distinguishing consensus, satisfaction, and cohesion (χ2/df = 2.63, CFI = .99, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .03, SRMR = .04). Standardized factor loadings ranged from .54 to .84 for consensus, .71 to .92 for satisfaction, and .68 to .89 for cohesion, indicating excellent factorial validity.
Psychological well-being indicators
Life satisfaction was assessed using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985), a 5-item measure of global cognitive evaluations of one’s life (e.g., “I am satisfied with my life”). The SWLS has demonstrated excellent reliability, strong unidimensionality, and extensive construct validity across diverse cultural and demographic groups (Pavot & Diener, 1993, 2008). Items were rated on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater life satisfaction. Prior research has consistently reported high internal consistency for the SWLS (e.g., α ≈ .85–.90; Işık et al., 2020). In the present study, internal consistency was excellent (α = .92, ω = .92), and a confirmatory factor analysis supported a single-factor structure (χ2/df = 5.10, CFI = .99, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .02, SRMR = .04). Standardized factor loadings ranged from .67 to .89.
Psychological distress was measured using the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales–21 (DASS-21; Antony et al., 1998), which comprises three 7-item subscales assessing depression, anxiety, and stress. The DASS-21 has been extensively validated and shows strong factorial validity, internal consistency, and sensitivity to symptoms across community and clinical populations (Henry & Crawford, 2005; Osman et al., 2012). Participants rated items (e.g., “I felt down-hearted and blue”; “I was close to panic”) on a 4-point scale (0 = did not apply to me at all to 3 = applied to me very much or most of the time). Subscale scores were summed and multiplied by two to compute a total distress score (range = 0–126), with higher scores reflecting greater psychological distress. Prior studies report excellent internal consistency for the subscales (e.g., α ≈ .85–.90; Kakemam et al., 2022). In the present study, internal consistency for the total score was high (α = .89, ω = .90). A confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor structure (χ2/df = 1.96, CFI = .99, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .02, SRMR = .04), with standardized loadings ranged from .62 to .83 for depression, .70 to .80 for anxiety, .62 to .81 for stress.
Analytic strategy
A two-step analytic strategy was employed to estimate and interpret the network structure of variables associated with marital adjustment and psychological well-being. In the first step, we estimated a network model capturing associations among dispositional (i.e., Big Five personality traits), motivational (i.e., approach–avoidance goals), and relational (i.e., perceived spousal support and strain) factors, along with marital adjustment. In the second step, the network was extended to include two indicators of psychological well-being—life satisfaction and psychological distress—to examine both direct and indirect pathways of association within an integrated framework.
Network estimation
Network estimation was conducted using the EBICglasso model (Isvoranu et al., 2022), a regularized partial correlation approach that identifies conditional dependencies among variables while minimizing spurious associations caused by multicollinearity. Nodes represented the Big Five traits, approach–avoidance goals, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment. Edges reflected regularized partial correlations, with blue and red lines indicating positive and negative associations, respectively. Network visualization was performed using the qgraph package (version 1.9.8), and node placement followed the Fruchterman–Reingold algorithm, which positions strongly connected nodes closer together (Epskamp & Fried, 2018).
Network centrality
To assess the relative importance of each variable, four centrality indices were computed: Strength, Bridge Strength, Expected Influence, and Bridge Expected Influence. Strength and Bridge Strength quantify the magnitude of a node’s direct connections, while Expected Influence and Bridge Expected Influence account for both positive and negative associations, capturing the node’s overall influence within the network (Epskamp et al., 2018; Jones et al., 2021). Following prior recommendations (Epskamp et al., 2018; Robinaugh et al., 2016), variables ranking within the top 25% on any index were interpreted as the most influential indicators in the network, as such nodes typically exert the strongest integrative influence cross domains.
Direct and indirect influence on psychological well-being
Flow network analyses were conducted to examine both direct and indirect associations between psychological well-being outcomes and the broader marital adjustment network. In the resulting flow diagrams, outcome nodes were placed on the left, and other variables were positioned vertically according to their proximity and strength of association. This visualization highlights both proximal and distal correlates of life satisfaction and psychological distress. Although the diagrams display directional arrows for clarity, these do not represent causal or structural pathways as in structural equation modeling; instead, they depict conditional associations derived from the estimated partial correlation network.
Network accuracy and stability
The reliability of the estimated network was evaluated using the bootnet package (version 1.5.6). Edge accuracy was assessed through 95% bootstrapped confidence intervals, and centrality stability was tested using the correlation stability coefficient (CS-coefficient). Values above .25 indicate acceptable stability, and values above .50 reflect strong robustness suitable for interpretation (Epskamp et al., 2018).
Results
Preliminary analyses
Descriptive statistics among research variables.
Network structure
Redundancy checks indicated no overlapping nodes; therefore, all variables were retained in the final network model. The estimated network structure is shown in Figure 1. Of the 45 possible edges, 24 (53.3%) were retained, yielding a moderately sparse yet interpretable network. The corresponding edge-weight matrix is provided in Table S2. On average, neighboring nodes accounted for 38% of the variance in each variable, as reflected by the predictability index. Estimated network structure illustrating associations among personality traits, approach–avoidance goals, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment.
A cohesive cluster emerged around marital adjustment, approach goals, and spousal support. Within the personality domain, the strongest associations were observed between agreeableness and extraversion (edge weight = 0.29), neuroticism and extraversion (−0.28), conscientiousness and openness (0.26), conscientiousness and neuroticism (−0.24), and agreeableness and openness (0.21). Several meaningful cross-domain connections also appeared. Conscientiousness and agreeableness were positively related to avoidance goals (0.11 and 0.09, respectively), whereas neuroticism was positively associated with spousal strain (0.11), suggesting a dispositional tendency toward perceiving relational stress. Within the motivational–relational domain, approach goals were strongly linked to spousal support (0.29). Marital adjustment emerged as a central hub, showing strong positive connections with approach goals (0.43) and spousal support (0.33) and a robust negative association with spousal strain (−0.36).
Network centrality
As shown in Figure 2, centrality analyses revealed that marital adjustment had the highest node strength, followed by approach goals and agreeableness, reflecting their strong interconnectedness within the network. Approach goals and agreeableness also exhibited high expected influence, indicating that activation of these nodes could generate positive cascading effects across the system. Bridge strength and bridge expected influence identified marital adjustment and approach goals as key bridging variables that integrate dispositional (personality), motivational (approach–avoidance goals), and relational (spousal support and strain) domains. These results underscore the integrative function of marital adjustment and approach motivation within the broader psychosocial system. The robustness of the estimated network was supported by bootstrap analyses. Edge weights displayed narrow 95% confidence intervals, and centrality metrics showed high stability, with correlation stability coefficients (CS-coefficients) exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.50 (see Figures S1–S4). These findings indicate that the network structure and relative importance of nodes were estimated with strong precision and reliability. Centrality indices for the network of personality traits, approach–avoidance goals, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment. 
Flow network
Flow network analyses were conducted to examine both direct and indirect associations between psychological well-being outcomes and the broader marital adjustment network. As shown in Figure 3, life satisfaction was directly associated with neuroticism (−0.22), marital adjustment (0.17), spousal support (0.12), extraversion (0.12), and approach goals (0.09). Other variables were linked indirectly to life satisfaction through these core nodes. For psychological distress (Figure 4), direct associations were observed with neuroticism (0.55), marital adjustment (−0.13), and avoidance goals (0.13), with remaining variables exerting indirect associations through these pathways. Flow network depicting associations between life satisfaction and personality traits, approach–avoidance goals, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment. Flow network depicting associations between psychological distress and personality traits, approach–avoidance goals, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment.
Neuroticism emerged as the most influential variable for both outcomes, showing an inverse association with life satisfaction and a positive association with psychological distress. Marital adjustment showed dual relevance, being positively lined with life satisfaction and negatively with psychological distress. Motivational orientations displayed distinct patterns: approach goals were positively related to life satisfaction, whereas avoidance goals were positively related to distress. Additionally, spousal support and extraversion were uniquely associated with life satisfaction, underscoring their particular role in fostering positive well-being rather than merely mitigating distress.
Discussion
This study investigated how personality traits, interpersonal motivational orientations, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment interrelate within the marital relationships of middle-aged and older adults. By applying network analysis, we moved beyond traditional pairwise or latent-variable frameworks to map the broader structural configuration of these dispositional, motivational, and relational variables as an interconnected system. Incorporating life satisfaction and psychological distress into flow networks further allowed us to visualize how these domains are directly and indirectly associated with psychological well-being. The findings extend social–cognitive and dynamic-systems perspectives by illustrating that these factors are not isolated correlates but components of a cohesive and mutually reinforcing network. Personality dispositions shape how individuals interpret and engage with relational experiences, while motivational orientations—particularly approach and avoidance goals—organize how these dispositions are enacted in daily interactions. The prominence of marital adjustment and approach goals within the network underscores the importance of sustained engagement, emotional attunement, and goal-directed responsiveness for maintaining psychological well-being in marriage. This configuration is consistent with socioemotional selectivity theory, which emphasizes that emotionally meaningful and goal-oriented relationships become increasingly central to adaptation and well-being in midlife and later adulthood.
The first aim was to delineate the network structure linking personality traits, interpersonal motivations, perceived spousal support and strain, and marital adjustment. The results revealed a closely interconnected cluster comprising approach goals, spousal support, and marital adjustment, indicating that these motivational and relational variables cohere as a subsystem within the broader marital context. This configuration is consistent with prior research showing that approach-oriented goals are associated with intimacy and responsiveness (Gable & Impett, 2012; Impett et al., 2010) and that perceived support corresponds to higher marital satisfaction (Delatorre et al., 2022; Işık & Kaya, 2022). Beyond confirming these pairwise links, the network approach illustrates how these variables interrelate within a unified structure, suggesting that motivational and relational processes may reinforce one another in maintaining adaptive marital functioning. Although causal direction cannot be inferred from cross-sectional data, the observed configuration points to reciprocal interdependencies that future longitudinal or dynamic network studies could examine more directly.
The network also revealed notable cross-domain associations that illuminate how interpersonal motivations are situated within broader dispositional profiles. Avoidance goals were positively linked with conscientiousness and agreeableness but negatively with extraversion—a pattern that diverges from evidence in achievement contexts, where avoidance goals are typically associated with neuroticism or low conscientiousness (Chen & Zhang, 2011; McCabe et al., 2013). Within the marital domain, however, avoidance goals may not solely reflect defensive withdrawal but rather a relationally protective orientation aimed at preserving harmony and minimizing conflict. Individuals high in conscientiousness and agreeableness may adopt such goals as normative strategies to sustain stability and cohesion in long-term partnerships. This interpretation underscores that the meaning and adaptiveness of motivational orientations are context-dependent—potentially constructive within enduring, interdependent relationships, even if maladaptive in competitive or evaluative settings. Within the personality domain, neuroticism showed strong connections with greater spousal strain and lower marital adjustment, whereas agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion clustered with more supportive relational perceptions. Together, these patterns suggest that adaptive personality traits may function as psychological resources that co-occur with perceptions of support and relational stability, buffering against the interpersonal difficulties often linked to neuroticism. Viewed through a systems lens, personality and relational experiences emerge as mutually embedded elements within the broader ecology of marital well-being rather than as isolated correlates.
The second aim was to identify the most influential and integrative nodes within the network—those exhibiting the highest levels of centrality and bridge strength. The network structure revealed that marital adjustment and approach goals functioned as key hubs connecting dispositional, motivational, and relational domains. Rather than merely reaffirming known pairwise associations among marital adjustment, personality traits (Heller et al., 2004; O’Meara & South, 2019; Sayehmiri et al., 2020), goal orientations (Elliot et al., 2006; Impett et al., 2010), and partner perceptions of support and strain (Abbas et al., 2019; Delatorre et al., 2022; Işık & Kaya, 2022), these findings illustrate how these constructs cohere within a single, interconnected system. Whereas traditional regression or latent-variable models treat such links as distinct or residual pathways, the network framework captures their emergent organization, allowing the structure of interdependencies to be derived directly from observed associations. This systemic representation provides a richer account of how dispositional, motivational, and relational factors are jointly embedded within marital functioning.
Marital adjustment occupied the structural core of the network, situated within a closely connected cluster of motivational and relational variables. This centrality underscores its role not merely as an outcome but as an integrative construct through which personality and motivation are expressed and coordinated within marriage. Approach goals likewise exhibited strong centrality and bridging strength, suggesting that an orientation toward relational growth and closeness permeates dispositional tendencies, partner perceptions, and overall marital functioning. Their prominence highlights the organizing role of approach motivation in maintaining cohesive interpersonal dynamics and promoting psychological well-being. From an applied perspective, identifying such integrative nodes provides theoretically grounded leverage points for intervention—factors whose reinforcement may yield broader adaptive effects across interconnected domains of marital life.
The third aim was to examine how psychological well-being—represented by life satisfaction and psychological distress—was directly and indirectly associated with marital adjustment and its related dispositional, motivational, and relational correlates within the broader network system. The flow network revealed that life satisfaction was most strongly connected with marital adjustment, followed by spousal support, extraversion, and approach goals, and inversely associated with neuroticism. Psychological distress, in contrast, showed positive links with neuroticism and avoidance goals and a negative link with marital adjustment. These interrelations echo prior findings that high-quality marital relationships are closely tied to greater life satisfaction and lower psychological symptoms (Carr et al., 2014; Goldfarb & Trudel, 2019; Postler et al., 2022), while extraversion consistently relates to positive affect and subjective well-being across populations (Busseri & Erb, 2024).
Among all nodes, neuroticism exhibited the strongest connectivity with indicators of well-being, relational strain, and adjustment, underscoring its broad influence across individual and interpersonal levels. This pattern aligns with prior research conceptualizing neuroticism as a broad vulnerability factor characterized by heightened emotional reactivity and stress sensitivity (Song et al., 2023; Tackett & Lahey, 2017). Within the current network, its associations with greater perceived strain and lower marital adjustment suggest that neuroticism is embedded in a constellation of self-regulatory and relational processes that co-occur with diminished well-being. While no directional claims can be inferred, this configuration highlights neuroticism’s integrative position within the psychosocial system, bridging emotional dysregulation and interpersonal tension.
Finally, the contrasting positions of approach and avoidance goals offer further insight into motivational correlates of well-being. Approach goals clustered with indicators of relational positivity and satisfaction, consistent with evidence that such orientations foster intimacy, responsiveness, and mutual growth (Gable & Impett, 2012; Nikitin & Schoch, 2021). Avoidance goals, conversely, were proximally related to psychological distress and lower adjustment, reflecting their association with defensive regulation and interpersonal withdrawal. While avoidance orientations may serve short-term protective functions (Nikitin & Freund, 2019), their broader network position suggests links with strain and internalized stress. Taken together, these findings illustrate the functional asymmetry of motivational orientations within marital systems and emphasize that approach-oriented goals, when embedded in supportive relationships, are central to maintaining psychological well-being.
The present findings advance both theoretical understanding and practical application of marital and psychological well-being. Theoretically, the network structure revealed that marital adjustment and approach-oriented goals function as central and bridging nodes linking dispositional, motivational, and relational domains. This pattern reinforces and extends social–cognitive and dynamic-systems perspectives (Andersen & Chen, 2002; Back et al., 2011, 2023; Bandura, 2001), which conceptualize personality, motivation, and social interaction as reciprocally regulating systems. Within this framework, marital adjustment emerges not merely as an outcome but as a core organizing process through which enduring dispositions and interpersonal motivations manifest in daily relational life. Likewise, approach-oriented goals bridge dispositional and relational processes, illustrating how goal-directed engagement fosters mutual support, effective communication, and emotional well-being. More broadly, these findings demonstrate the conceptual utility of a network perspective in mapping how diverse psychological systems converge into an integrated structure that sustains marital and emotional adaptation.
From an applied perspective, identifying central and bridging variables offers concrete guidance for interventions and policy initiatives. In therapeutic and counseling contexts, interventions that cultivate approach-oriented goals—such as reframing relational challenges as opportunities for growth, fostering shared goals, and enhancing emotional attunement—may strengthen marital adjustment and, in turn, improve overall well-being. Similarly, efforts to enhance spousal support and mitigate relational strain can stabilize key pathways of emotional regulation and resilience within couples. These strategies are particularly relevant for couples therapy, psychoeducational programs, and marital enrichment initiatives that address relational and motivational functioning simultaneously. At a broader level, the findings can inform community and policy efforts by identifying psychosocial factors—such as approach motivation, perceived support, and marital harmony—that exert the most systemic influence on well-being among adults. For instance, workplace or community-based programs that promote supportive communication and cooperative goal setting between partners may foster resilience and relationship satisfaction during midlife transitions. More broadly, the network framework provides a conceptual foundation for pinpointing relational and motivational targets that are most likely to yield widespread benefits for psychological and marital well-being.
The interpretation of these findings should also be situated within the cultural context of South Korea, which is characterized by interdependence, collectivistic values, and strong familial obligations. In such relationally oriented settings, marital harmony and mutual support are not merely personal achievements but social responsibilities that reflect broader familial and societal expectations (Kim et al., 2013). Consequently, the centrality of marital adjustment and approach-oriented goals in the present network may mirror cultural norms emphasizing relational cohesion and emotional attunement within marriage. Approach goals—focused on cultivating closeness, responsiveness, and mutual understanding—align closely with Confucian ideals of interdependence and relational harmony, whereas avoidance goals may reflect the cultural inclination to minimize overt conflict and preserve social balance (Choi & Kim, 2006). At the same time, these relational norms may impose emotional demands, particularly in later life when caregiving responsibilities and intergenerational obligations intensify. Future cross-cultural research could examine whether the observed network structure generalizes to more individualistic contexts, where autonomy and self-expression play greater roles in defining marital and psychological well-being.
Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, although the present network model elucidates conditional associations among dispositional, motivational, and relational variables, it does not permit causal inference. The identified interdependencies reflect covariance structures rather than directional processes (Isvoranu et al., 2022). Longitudinal or experimental network designs will be essential for clarifying the temporal sequencing and potential causal mechanisms underlying these associations. Moreover, while this study focused on a unified sociocentric network, future work could complement this approach by constructing egocentric networks within specific domains (e.g., personality, motivation, relational factors; Perry et al., 2018), thereby providing finer-grained insight into localized structural patterns and intra-domain interdependencies. At the same time, future research should incorporate more detailed, momentary assessments of emotional and conflict dynamics to capture how these processes unfold in everyday marital life. Although the present study emphasized enduring dispositional, motivational, and relational structures, the addition of intensive longitudinal designs—such as daily-diary or experience-sampling methods—would enable examination of within-person fluctuations and short-term regulatory processes through which broader trait and motivational patterns are enacted. Integrating such approaches with network-based models could reveal how transient affective states and conflict interactions dynamically reinforce or attenuate the more stable structural patterns identified here.
Second, participants were community-dwelling adults without diagnostic assessments. Although this enhances the generalizability of findings to nonclinical populations, replication in clinical samples is needed to determine whether similar patterns emerge among individuals with diagnosed mental health conditions. Third, inclusion criteria required participants to be currently married. While this ensured comparability in examining spousal dynamics, it excluded unmarried or previously married individuals, potentially introducing selection bias and limiting the representativeness of the sample. In addition, information regarding participants’ sexual orientation, prior marital history (e.g., divorce), or confirmation of heterosexual partnerships was not collected by the panel provider, and thus these characteristics could not be examined. Future studies adopting broader eligibility criteria and more inclusive demographic measures could better capture the diversity of relational experiences across adulthood. Relatedly, gender was assessed using a binary measure (male/female), restricting inclusivity and precluding examination of diverse gender identities and relationship structures. Finally, psychological distress was assessed as a composite of depression, anxiety, and stress. Although this approach captures general emotional dysfunction, it limits differentiation among specific symptom dimensions. Future research employing symptom-level network analyses could help identify transdiagnostic symptom nodes that are particularly responsive to relational or motivational influences, thereby refining targets for prevention and intervention.
Conclusion
In sum, this study offers an integrative perspective on how personality traits, interpersonal motivational orientations, and relational perceptions jointly contribute to marital quality and psychological well-being in middle and later adulthood. Rather than converging on a single dominant predictor or linear pathway, the present network findings highlight structurally differentiated configurations, demonstrating that distinct constellations of dispositional, motivational, and relational factors are differentially aligned with psychological well-being. By applying a network analytic framework, the study delineated the structural organization of this multilevel system and identified key bridging variables—particularly approach goals and marital adjustment—that link otherwise separable dispositional, motivational, and relational domains. These findings underscore the importance of targeting such integrative, cross-domain constructs, rather than isolated risk or protective factors, in interventions aimed at enhancing marital functioning and fostering psychological resilience across midlife and beyond.
Supplemental material
Supplemental Material - Divergent network pathways linking personality, Approach–Avoidance goals, and marital adjustment to psychological well-being
Supplemental Material for Divergent network pathways linking personality, Approach–Avoidance goals, and marital adjustment to psychological well-being by Sunjeong Gyeong and Huiyoung Shin in Journal of Social and Personal Relationships
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study, with each individual signing a consent form indicating their understanding of the study conditions and voluntary participation.
Footnotes
Author contributions
SG conceived the study, participated in the research design, conducted the analyses, interpreted the data, visualized the results, and drafted the initial manuscript. HS also conceived the study, contributed to the research design, assisted with data analysis and interpretation, and substantially revised the manuscript for submission and resubmission. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Open research statement
As part of IARR’s encouragement of open research practices, the authors have provided the following information: This research was not pre-registered. The data used in the research are available upon request. The data can be obtained by emailing:
Ethical considerations
The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Jeonbuk National University (IRB No. 2023-01-012-001; Clinical trial number: not applicable) and conducted in accordance with local regulations and institutional requirements. All procedures conformed to the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association.
Data Availability Statement
The dataset generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Supplemental material
Supplemental material for this article is available online.
References
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