Abstract
As people all over the world continue to adjust to the new normal presented to them by COVID-19, they must adjust to the social restrictions that have been enforced. These restrictions include shelter-in-place and work-from-home orders that severely limit the face-to-face interactions that were considered a norm in many peoples’ lives (e.g., speaking with the grocer, hair stylist, etc.). As individuals adjust to these changes, their communication behaviors must adapt as well. This study seeks to determine how the restrictions of COVID-19 have impacted Imagined Interactions (IIs) and Communication Apprehension (CA). This study identifies significant relationships between IIs and CA before and during COVID-19, as well as how certain demographics have experienced IIs and CA during the pandemic.
It is an irrefutable fact that COVID-19 has impacted the global community in ways that we have yet to anticipate. The last time the world experienced a pandemic similar to that of COVID-19 was during 1918, when the Spanish Influenza took thousands of lives and struck fear into laypeople and healthcare professionals alike (Terry, 2020). And while technology and communication are vastly different in this modern era, the pandemic has put humans at the mercy of science and time; until herd immunity is achieved, people will be resigned to wearing face masks and social distancing, whether staying six feet apart or communicating asynchronously via email or text, or synchronously through video conferencing and phone calls.
With the pandemic impacting individuals’ ability to leave the home, an increasing number of employers are transitioning their employees’ positions online, and workplace communication norms are changing. In addition to increased virtual employment, the pandemic has resulted in an increase in the usage of online shopping platforms (e.g., eBay, Amazon, and DoorDash) as well as social media platforms (e.g., TikTok, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram) and online dating platforms (e.g., Tinder, OkCupid, and Hinge) as people reach out for like minds and connection (Fisher, 2020; Moore, 2020).
Though many people appear to be making up for the decrease in face-to-face interaction, this shift to virtual interaction has had unintended consequences on communities around the world. For example, as the pandemic took hold in the western hemisphere, educational institutes—primary, secondary, and post-secondary alike—had to shift to online learning, effectively cutting short the education of students (Burke, 2020). From this transition, an unintentional gap results, especially for students transitioning from high school to higher education or the workforce, as students, instructors, and employers have to race against time to supplement students’ foundational knowledge. Additionally, small businesses around the country have had to shift to online sales or close entirely in order to stay afloat and avoid bankruptcy, and more Americans have had to file unemployment from March 2020 to September 2020 than they have in all the years since the Great Depression (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020), reaching approximately 11% unemployment at its peak in July.
To better understand the shifts that have occurred in communication practices due to changing workplace and communication norms, this study focuses on Imagined Interactions (IIs) and Communication Apprehension (CA). IIs, defined by Honeycutt (1989) as imagined experiences in which individuals mentally create or recreate communication episodes, are part of daily communication rituals—rituals that have been heavily impacted during the pandemic. In normal circumstances (i.e., when there is not a pandemic waging war with the world) people use IIs to prepare for and reflect upon communication episodes they have had with intimate partners, family members, friends, and colleagues. This research sought to identify how IIs are used during times of extraordinary circumstances, and how individuals’ experiences with IIs change, if they do. CA, defined by McCroskey (1976a, 1977) as the anxiety surrounding communication, either situationally, contextually, or indefinitely, also plays an important role in communication habits and patterns, and understanding how individuals experience CA during the pandemic could help determine methods for reducing CA in future high-stress situations.
However, as individuals are forced to remain isolated or socially distanced, the question arises: how do IIs and CA change during a pandemic? This study prompted individuals to compare their experience with CA prior to and during the pandemic, and assessed individuals’ pandemic IIs, comparing the current responses to those typically experienced based on gender, age, and other demographics.
While IIs and CA are still at the forefront of interpersonal communication studies, there has been little to no research examining how IIs are impacted by isolation brought on by pandemics, and the resulting consequences thereof. Prior research does indicate that IIs experienced by lonely individuals are less pleasant and efficient at helping those individuals plan for further communication, but that research does not consider the further effects a pandemic might have on IIs. Forced isolation and loneliness are not synonymous; for example, some individuals—such as those who identify as introverts—may fair better under isolation than extroverts, whose loneliness may be exacerbated by the pandemic’s required isolations. Thus, it becomes important that the context of the pandemic is taken into consideration when determining the extent of how individuals are experiencing IIs and CA.
The purpose of this study is to explore how individuals have experienced IIs and CA during the COVID-19 pandemic. Though IIs serve many functions, this study seeks to determine whether or not the frequency of IIs has changed, whether or not individuals have experienced an increase or decrease in CA, and if and how IIs and CA relate to one another during a pandemic. Honeycutt’s (1989, 2010b, 2010c, 2015) theory of Imagined Interactions as well as McCroskey’s (1984) theories regarding Communication Apprehension provide the framework for this study.
By determining how individuals experience IIs and CA during pandemics, both individuals and institutions may gain insight into how isolation impacts communication practices and apprehension to better prepare for future scenarios. For example, in the field of mental health, healthcare professionals could encourage patients to use IIs to reduce CA and cope with change. Other institutions could also benefit, as this information would allow corporations to better engage with consumers and continue marketing products effectively. Additionally, understanding IIs and CA during the time of COVID-19 would allow individuals and institutions to plan for instances of isolation to help negate CA and improve productivity.
Literature Review
As individuals have increasingly been required to telework or have become unemployed, shifts in communication are to be expected (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). During the COVID-19 pandemic, opportunities for social interaction have decreased significantly; by evaluating the theoretical framework of each, it becomes clear that the isolation induced by the pandemic could have a distinct impact on both IIs and CA.
Imagined Interaction Theory
IIs, or the imagined conversations individuals have before or following actual communication episodes, continue to intrigue researchers, as is evidenced by the sheer number of studies exploring the functions and attributes of IIs (e.g., Honeycutt, 1989, 1999, 2003a, 2003b, 2010b, 2010c, 2015). Though individuals typically experience IIs that focus on previous or upcoming conversations with close colleagues, friends, and family members, IIs are not limited to those experiences (Honeycutt, 2015). Though intimate IIs occur more often, IIs in which the individual is imagining a scenario with someone they do not know intimately can also occur. Over time, researchers (Allen & Honeycutt, 1997; Bodie et al., 2013; Zagacki et al., 1992) have identified eight attributes and six functions of IIs that further break down how and why individuals experience IIs.
Functions and Attributes of IIs
The function of an II is essentially its use, or why a person is experiencing an II—how it is functioning for that individual. Among the functions that have been identified by researchers are catharsis, relational maintenance, rehearsal, conflict linkage, compensation, and self-understanding (Honeycutt, 2003b, 2008, 2020). To better understand these functions, they can be broken down based on when and why they are experienced. Catharsis and conflict linkage, for example, often occur after an actual communication episode, though for somewhat different reasons. While catharsis is the “letting go” of hurtful experiences, conflict linkage is an extension of the perceived wrong, a “linking” of conflict from one conversation to the next via IIs. Like catharsis, self-understanding is a positively perceived function of IIs, as the self-understanding function of IIs allows individuals to better understand where they stand on an issue based on the context of the communication episode experienced. While self-understanding is not always accurate, engaging in this metacognitive practice allows the individual to self-reflect, which could, arguably, improve his or her communication abilities (Honeycutt, 2009).
Relational maintenance, as a function of IIs, allows one to prepare for or reflect on conversations had with close friends, relatives, or colleagues and is important for relationships that stretch over time and space; as people are currently separated from loved ones, friends, and close colleagues, how individuals experience IIs that fulfill the relational maintenance function will, theoretically, have changed as many relationships have had to move online (Honeycutt, 2009). The rehearsal function of IIs allows a person to plan ahead for potential communication episodes and has been proven to reduce public speaking anxiety (Honeycutt et al., 2009; Honeycutt, 2020) and improve performance (Choi et al., 2015; Gotcher & Honeycutt, 1989; May & Asken, 1987). As boardroom presentations, education, and much more has shifted online, it would seem that the rehearsal function of IIs would continue to function in a similar manner, as individuals prepare for virtual communication. Compensation, the final function, is when an individual is lacking in communication episodes and uses IIs as a substitute (Honeycutt, 2010c). The final three functions—relational maintenance, rehearsal, and compensation—are all extremely relevant in the given times due to the impact of COVID-19 on society, and this study sought to determine if any significant relationships appeared between those functions and demographics such as age, sex, income, region, and race.
The attributes are the context in which the II is occurring, and eight attributes have been identified (Honeycutt, 2003b, 2008, 2020): valence, proactivity, retroactivity, self-dominance, specificity, frequency, discrepancy, and variety. First, the valence of an II refers to the kinds of emotions associated with the II: positive, negative, or neutral. When taken as a pair, proactivity and retroactivity of an II determine whether an II is happening prior to or following an II. Self-dominance refers to whether or not the self is contributing more or less than the other party within the II, whereas specificity refers to how much detail is included in the II (Honeycutt, 2009). Frequency, one of the aspects examined in this study, refers to how often IIs occur. Discrepancy and variety, respectively, refer to how accurate and varied IIs are.
Relevancy of IIs to the Current Study
Research by Berkos (2010) also demonstrated that IIs are experienced in online communication settings, with the individuals reporting 12 different kinds of II communication partners that included not only romantic partners, friends, and family, but also professors and supervisors. Additionally, Berkos (2010) found that IIs impacted how individuals communicate virtually, as individuals “[r]eported sometimes typing something online, then having an II about what they were writing, and deleting or rephrasing their initial message based on their II” (p. 119). Additionally, Berkos (2010) found that IIs play specific roles in online communication, and individuals’ experiences with IIs that occur during online communication can be broken into five categories: emotion management, communication improvement, proactive/rehearsal communication, situation management, and professional conduct.
Previous studies have indicated that IIs can assist in “manifesting” outcomes and reducing public speaking anxiety (Honeycutt et al., 2009; Honeycutt, 2020). It could easily be argued that IIs are an individual’s most useful tool in planning for and reflecting upon communication, whether one is preparing for a conversation with a family member or partner or if one is preparing for a staff meeting or public speaking event. When communicating virtually, individuals may use IIs to determine how well their communications will be received, and thus help reduce communication apprehension. In conjunction with CA, IIs could be used in a practical way to reduce CA and foster positive communication episodes during the pandemic. However, prior to determining how IIs could be used during the pandemic, how they are being used must be assessed.
Communication Apprehension
Communication is a key component in any industry, from education to business to entertainment; for institutions and organizations to function at their fullest capacity and avoid common pitfalls, effective communication must be in place. Communication breakdowns, however, happen frequently and at every level. So what influences inefficient communication? Many things, but the level of CA the individual experiences is often a key component—one that can not only disrupt teams, but also impact individual performance and upward mobility.
Communication Apprehension (CA), a term coined by McCroskey (1976b, 1977), refers to “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey & Richmond, 1979, p. 55). CA can be broken into two levels, high and low CA, and four categories: traitlike, context-based, audience-based, and situational CA (McCroskey & Sheahan, 1978; McCroskey & Richmond, 1979; McCroskey et al., 1986; M. D. Scott et al., 1978).
Levels of CA
Previous studies (such as M. D. Scott et al., 1978) indicate that there are more individuals who experience high levels of CA than one might initially expect, as individuals reporting high levels of communication apprehension often blend into society. However, high CA has its markers; individuals with high apprehensiveness are less interactive than those with lower levels of CA, and previous studies (McCroskey, 1976a; McCroskey et al., 1976; McCroskey & Richmond, 1977; M. D. Scott et al., 1978) have also concluded that those who report higher levels of apprehension are less communicative in group settings and are less likely to engage in bonding activities, including self-disclosure, which limits their social capacity for interaction.
Previous research by McCroskey and Richmond (1976) indicated that individuals with moderate or low apprehensiveness perceived those who scored highly in communication apprehension unfavorably, and unfortunately, CA can bleed into various communication settings, including education and work. In fact, those who experience high levels of CA are often less successful in school settings and may even miss out on job opportunities and promotions because, as candidates and employees, those who self-reported having higher levels of communication apprehension are often perceived as “less competent and socially attractive” than applicants who experience less CA (McCroskey, 1976a, p. 40). Because of this, those experiencing higher levels of apprehension are often less socially mobile and miss out on opportunities afforded to those who experience moderate and low apprehension.
Understandably, CA impacts many decisions a person can make regarding socialization and occupations, and it can display itself in different manners. The four types of CA are traitlike, context-based, audience-based, and situational CA (McCroskey et al., 1986). Traitlike CA is practically ingrained into an individual; for those who experience traitlike CA, it is as if CA is written into their life. Traitlike CA can typically be experienced in three forms: oral, written, and singing apprehension (McCroskey et al., 1986). For those who experience traitlike CA, their battle with CA is ongoing. Context-based CA often rears its head in certain situations (McCroskey et al., 1986; McCroskey & Richmond, 1982), such as when working in small groups or when public speaking. As the name suggests, context-based CA is triggered by the context in which a person is interacting with others; for example, some individuals might experience context-based CA when working within a specific committee, when communicating virtually, or perhaps only when they go on dates. While individuals may score highly in all categories, those who experience contextual CA would typically score more highly in one of four categories: meetings, public speaking, interpersonal communication, and group discussions.
Audience-based CA refers to CA that arises from speaking with a specific person or group (McCroskey et al., 1986; McCroskey & Richmond, 1982). For example, a person may consistently experience audience-based CA when speaking with an in-law or supervisor. Interestingly, whereas traitlike and context-based CA are long-lasting personal traits, audience-based CA can shift with the behavior of the group or person prompting the CA in the individual experiencing it (McCroskey et al., 1986). For example, if the dynamic of the relationship changed, the individual could experience a shift in the level of their audience-based CA. Lastly, situational CA, of course, is CA experienced in certain situations. McCroskey (1984) defines situational CA as a “transitory orientation” that can arise or shift with certain people or groups (p. 18). Like audience-based CA, situational CA can shift depending upon how the individual experiencing CA perceives the communication episode.
Relevancy of CA to the Current Study
In a world turned upside down by the COVID-19 pandemic, how and when people communicate has shifted entirely for some. For those who experience CA, these changes have surely impacted how, when, and why they experience CA. Thus, this study sought to determine how CA has changed in individuals as well as how frequently IIs are being experienced. Honeycutt et al. (2009) found that IIs can reduce CA, so this study sought to determine how IIs and CA are being experienced, and what, if any, relationship exists between them during the pandemic. Additionally, previous research (Talley & Richmond, 1980; McCroskey et al., 1982) has indicated that, for the most part, there is not a significant difference in how the biological sexes experience CA. However, when referring to public speaking apprehension, women typically experienced more CA. With the pandemic, many females have had to fill the roles of employee, caretaker, and teacher; the additional stressors could impact how females experience CA. The researcher hoped to gain insight into the kinds of CA and IIs they are experiencing to determine if there are practical implications for the use of IIs as a tool to reduce CA in individuals communicating virtually.
IIs and CA in the Workplace
Regardless of how it is delivered, communication plays an important role in the workplace. As demonstrated by previous studies, IIs can benefit those in the workplace as they recall conversations with supervisors and colleagues as well as prepare for presentations and important interactions (Choi et al., 2015). Additional studies (Croghan & Croghan, 2010; Croghan & Kelley, 2004) have found significant correlations in individuals’ workplace experiences and their experiences with IIs. For example, in a 2010 study, Croghan and Kelley found that work experience and the discrepancy of IIs are negatively correlated, with those who have more work experience reporting less discrepant IIs. Croghan and Croghan (2010) identified ways in which IIs can improve workplace communication, including helping prospective employees prepare for job interviews, helping to plan what one will say before a meeting, and utilizing the catharsis and rehearsal functions of IIs to avoid conflict at meetings.
In the workplace, the level and type of CA a person experiences can influence their job choice as they actively try to find environments that provide little opportunity to trigger CA (Daly & McCroskey, 1975; M. D. Scott et al., 1978). In addition to the job choice, CA can influence the interview process (Daly & Leth, 1976; M. D. Scott et al., 1978), job satisfaction (Falcione et al., 1977; M. D. Scott et al., 1978), and communication with supervisors (McCroskey et al., 1986), often to the detriment of high apprehensives.
In a study examining how CA influenced the application process, Daly and Leth (1976) discovered that highly apprehensive job applicants, even though they were as qualified as other applicants, were negatively evaluated, were less likely to be granted a job interview, were seen as needing more additional training than others, and were seen as less likely to get along well with co-workers (M. D. Scott et al., 1978, p. 105). Similarly, Falcione et al. (1977) found that high CA was directly correlated with low job satisfaction, and McCroskey and Richmond (1977) found a significant correlation between CA levels and length of employment; those with higher CA stayed with a company for a shorter time than those with low or no CA. Those with high CA not only experienced anxiety during communication episodes, but they also believed they were less likely to receive promotions or recognition for their work, which ultimately contributed to a self-fulfilling prophecy experienced by many with high levels of CA, prompting them to leave that employer (McCroskey & Richmond, 1979; M. D. Scott et al., 1978).
Communication and Isolation
Previous studies regarding communication and isolation occur almost exclusively with two specific populations: the elderly and the incarcerated, with the latter being the most researched population. However, with the onset of the coronavirus, there is an increasing amount of research evaluating how loneliness and isolation are impacting society (e.g., Hwang et al., 2020). Regardless, there is still a gap in the research, and what researchers know about isolation and communication is drawn from prisons and the elderly. For example, previous studies (G. D. Scott & Gendreau, 1969) in how isolation impacts prison inmates has found that individuals in isolation must experience the appropriate amount of “sensory stimulation” (p. 341); otherwise, those individuals can experience extreme mental health issues. Other studies (e.g., Wittenberg, 1996) have also indicated that, though communication theories provide some insight into common communication structures, extreme circumstances that are not holistically representative of the population differ significantly because they are extremely specific to the environment. During the pandemic, much of the world has been experiencing isolation concurrently, and though research on how the general population experiences isolation is limited, prior studies on the impact of isolation on specific populations suggest that situations involving events or environments that are extremely specific to the circumstance, such as the impact COVID-19 is having on the world, impacts communication patterns.
Relevancy of Isolation to the Current Study
As individuals have had to endure self-isolation, quarantining, shelter-in-place, and work-from-home orders, more and more people have been subjected to isolation. Previous research (Jewkes & Johnston, 2009; G. D. Scott & Gendreau, 1969; Wittenberg, 1996) on the elderly and incarcerated suggested a link between social normalcy, communication, and isolation, noting that isolation typically leads to atypical communication behaviors; however, when given restricted use of communication platforms, those special populations were able to incorporate and benefit from those platforms, suggesting that alternative means of communication, though they take time to acclimate to, could potentially be beneficial for those under isolation, quarantine, shelter-in-place, or work-from-home orders.
Limitations of Previous Studies
Previous studies in IIs and CA have not focused on, nor highlighted, how isolation changes the communication practices of the general population. While trauma, as well as sustained trauma, has been viewed through the lens of communication, there is a gap in knowledge and research insofar as self-isolation and required isolation are concerned. Without studying IIs and CA through the specific lens of a world-altering pandemic, researchers are unable to determine whether or not the “norms” of each area continue to be normative. The question of how isolation impacts IIs and CA, and whether or not IIs can work as an effective tool for reducing CA in individuals, must be answered.
Additionally, though there is clearly extensive work regarding IIs and CA, a majority of works from both fields center their findings on the experience of college students, as this offers a convenient sampling for many researchers; however, a full view of IIs and CA are not possible unless data is pulled from people of varying ages, sexes, regions, and more. Like studies regarding IIs and CA, studies involving communication in isolation also have a limited population (e.g., the incarcerated and elderly). To better understand how isolation impacts communication, a wider participant pool is needed.
Hypotheses and Research Questions
For this study, a combination of hypotheses and research questions will be utilized:
Because CA is often brought on by communication episodes that are facilitated in-person through work or social interaction, both of which have been heavily limited for many people due to the pandemic, the amount of CA experienced should, hypothetically, decrease. Additionally, as communication shifts online, one would think that individuals would experience more frequent IIs to compensate for the lack of in-person communication and decreased CA because there are fewer opportunities for the kind of communication that exacerbates CA (e.g., group discussion, meetings, and public speaking). Previous studies (Berkos, 2010) have demonstrated that individuals do experience IIs when communicating online, which suggests that there may be a potential shift in IIs during the pandemic.
Though many employers are shifting their employees to online platforms, there will still be opportunities for those who are employed to experience interpersonal, group discussion, meeting, and public speaking CA; however, for those who are unemployed and who are required to isolate, there may be a decrease in CA, as there are fewer communication episodes to experience. For many individuals, a majority of their interactions occur in the workplace; thus, it would seem that those who are unemployed would experience fewer IIs.
Previous studies have indicated that both age and sex impact certain aspects of IIs and CA; however, this study hypothesizes that income, race, and personality will also impact IIs and CA. Those whose incomes are higher are often in lines of work that require different levels of face-to-face communication than those who work in low-salary positions; for example, someone working at a fast-food restaurant would typically have more face-to-face interactions than someone working as a paralegal or lawyer at a firm, which could impact their levels of CA along with how they experience IIs. Similarly, a person’s race may impact how they have experienced IIs and CA during the pandemic as minorities have been disproportionally impacted by it (Tai et al., 2021). Lastly, personality could also impact IIs and CA, as individuals who identify as being more introverted, or those who find energy and joy in solitude, may experience fewer negative side effects from the isolation required by the pandemic.
Methodology
Participants
To obtain a representative sample of the general population, a Qualtrics (https://www.qualtrics.com) survey was posted to several platforms including Reddit, LinkedIn, Instagram, and Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) advertising the opportunity to participate in a study examining how individuals have experienced IIs and CA during the pandemic. Only individuals over the age of 18 were allowed to participate, and a self-disclosure clause was provided at the beginning of the survey. Colleagues and acquaintances of the researcher were also encouraged to share the links via social media and by word-of-mouth. In total, 447 participants began the survey, and of those, 375 (83.9%) were viable complete responses.
A majority of the respondents, 67.2% (n = 252), answered the survey via the Qualtrics link posted to MTurk; the remainder of the respondents, 32.8%, (n = 123) answered via the Qualtrics links posted to the social media and networking platforms Instagram, Reddit, and LinkedIn. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 76 (M = 31.5; SD = 13.3). Of the participants, 48% (n = 180) were male, 50.4% (n = 189) were female, and 1.6% (n = 6) respondents chose not to disclose their sex. A further breakdown of demographic information indicated that 7.2% were Asian (n = 27), 9.1% were Black (n = 34), 4% were Latinx (n = 15), 1.1% were Mixed Race (n = 4), 5.3% were Native American (n = 20), 72.8% were White (n = 273), and 0.5% chose not to disclose their race (n = 2).
Income varied across respondents, with 24% making $0 to $30,000 annually (n = 90), 29% making $30,001 to $50,000 annually (n = 109), 25.9% making $50,001 to $70,000 annually (n = 97), and 14.4% making more than $70,001 annually (n = 54); of the total participants (N = 375), 6.7% chose not to disclose their income (n = 25). Participants were also distributed across the United States, with a majority of respondents (46.7%) listing the Southeast as their region (n = 175); 2.1% of respondents were from the Pacific Northwest (n = 8), 9.1% of respondents were from the West (n = 34), 14.7% of respondents were from the Midwest (n = 55), and 19.5% of respondents were from the Northeast (n = 73). One respondent chose Alaska as their region (0.2%), 10 respondents were from countries outside of the United States (2.7%), and 19 respondents chose not to disclose their region (5.1%).
Procedures
To determine whether or not there is a relationship between how individuals experience CA and IIs during pandemics such as COVID-19, the researcher administered a 102-question Qualtrics survey. Upon starting the survey, participants saw the informed consent before completing an abridged version of Honeycutt’s (2010a) Survey of Imagined Interactions (SII), a modified version of McCroskey’s (1982) Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24), and 17 additional demographic questions. The SII (Honeycutt, 2010a) was abridged for the purpose of this study and did not include open-ended questions. Participants were asked to complete the survey with the understanding that it was measuring how they have experienced IIs during the COVID-19 pandemic. Following the SII, participants completed the PRCA-24, which was modified to include pandemic-specific language. Participants were first asked to respond to each prompt with their perception of how they experienced CA prior to the pandemic, and then to answer with their current experience with CA during the pandemic. Lastly, the final 17 questions evaluated how respondents utilized social media, their perceived change in IIs due to the pandemic, their personalities (e.g., shy, reserved, outgoing, etc.), and their demographic information.
For this study, the researcher’s goal was to obtain a sample size of approximately 250 subjects ranging in age, gender, ethnicity, and region, with an emphasis on individuals’ experience with COVID-19 within the United States. A majority of respondents (N = 375) were middle-age (M = 31.5; SD = 13.3), white (n = 273), female (n = 189), residing in the Southeast (n = 175), with an income between $30,001 and $50,000 (n = 109). For incentive to complete the survey, MTurk respondents were paid $0.50 per survey, and all respondents were provided with a suggested reading list based on the references consulted for this study.
Measures
The following scales were used to measure demographics, IIs, and CA in respondents:
Survey of Imagined Interactions
The Survey of Imagined Interactions (Honeycutt, 2010a) is a 63-question survey used to determine how individuals experience the functions and attributes of IIs. For this study, 61 of the 63 survey items were utilized in Likert-style (1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree) questions and prompts. Of the 61 items, 35 Likert-style questions were used to measure the attributes of IIs (e.g., self-dominance, frequency, variety, specificity, proactivity, retroactivity, discrepancy, and valency). Another 25 Likert-style questions measured the 6 functions of IIs (e.g., catharsis, self-understanding, conflict management, relational maintenance, rehearsal, and compensation). The additional open-ended questions used to measure for relational maintenance were not utilized, as the current study does not explore specific instances of IIs but instead the participants’ general experience with IIs during the pandemic. This measure was administered once during the survey to measure respondents’ experience with IIs during the pandemic.
Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) (McCroskey, 1982)
The PRCA-24 is a 24-item survey that evaluates four categories, all of which are of interest to the current study: public speaking, meetings, group discussion, and interpersonal CA (McCroskey, 1982). McCroskey’s Personal Report of Communication Apprehension was amended to provide insight into how individuals experienced CA before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in that each question was administered twice. For each question presented in the PRCA-24, participants were first asked to score based on their perceived experience with CA prior to the pandemic; participants were then asked to answer the same question based on their current experience with CA during the pandemic. Both iterations used Likert-style prompts (1 = Strongly Agree and 5 = Strongly Disagree).
Demographic and COVID-19 Questions
For this study, 17 demographic questions were employed. Questions included two items asking how often individuals use certain social media platforms (e.g., Instagram, LinkedIn, Reddit, Facebook, etc.) in general and how often those platforms are typically used to reflect upon previous communication episodes and prepare for future communication. These questions were intended to provide insight into whether or not IIs were being fostered by online communication, or replaced by individuals’ ability to return to previous messages and posts. Within the demographic questions, questions comparing the frequency of IIs and perceived intensity of CA before and during COVID-19 were also included. These questions asked respondents to evaluate both the frequency of IIs and level of CA they experienced prior to the pandemic, and then to evaluate the frequency and level at which they experienced IIs and CA during the pandemic. Other demographic questions included age, sex, region, race, income, and personality.
Results
IIs During COVID-19
To determine whether or not individuals experienced increased or decreased IIs during the COVID-19 pandemic due to work-from-home and shelter-in-place directives (H1), the researcher conducted several analyses, beginning with tests of normality and reliability (see Appendix). The differences between pre-COVID-19 IIs and IIs experienced during the pandemic were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, p < .05). Thus, a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was utilized and indicated that, for a majority of participants (n = 214; N = 375), the amount of IIs remained the same during the pandemic.
For those who did experience a change in the number of IIs during the pandemic, there was a statistically significant difference: 91 participants reported having fewer IIs during COVID-19, whereas 70 participants reported experiencing more IIs during the pandemic, Z = −2.03, p = .042. A potential reason for the decrease in IIs may be that nearly all respondents (94.67%, n = 355) reported utilizing social media and other communication channels for reflection, with 17.6% (n = 66) reporting monthly reflection, 30.67% (n = 115) citing weekly reflection, 38.13% (n = 143) noting daily reflection, and 8.27% (n = 31) reporting hourly reflection. Only 5.33% (n = 20) reported never using communication channels like social media, emails, or text messages for reflection. To determine how platforms were utilized for reflection, descriptive statistics were computed. Of the platforms, text-messaging was used most often (M = 3.57, SD = 1.07), followed closely by work email (M = 3.34, SD = 1.22), personal email (M = 3.32, SD = 1.19), Instagram (M = 3.13, SD = 1.36), Facebook (M = 3.00, SD = 1.30), and Twitter (M = 2.73, SD = 1.39).
CA During COVID-19
The researcher hypothesized that (H2) during the COVID-19 pandemic, individuals would experience a decrease in CA due to a decrease in face-to-face interactions and communication events. Following a test of normality that indicated the data regarding CA intensity before and during the pandemic was not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05) a Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test produced statistically significant results; of the participants recruited to the study (N = 375), 115 participants experienced an increase in CA during the pandemic, whereas 163 participants experienced a statistically significant decrease in CA, Z = -4.64, p < .001. This data suggests that, for the most part, individuals have perceived a drastic decrease in their levels of CA, which could be in large part due to the unprecedented decrease in social activities.
IIs and CA During COVID-19
With a statistically significant difference in the number of IIs experienced by individuals along with a significant decrease in CA since the pandemic began, the question remained: what, if any, is the relationship between IIs and CAs during COVID-19 (RQ1)? The researcher originally hypothesized that, during the COVID-19 pandemic, IIs and CA would be negatively correlated, with individuals experiencing an increase in IIs and a decrease in CA. To determine whether or not a relationship exists between the frequency of IIs and the intensity of CA during COVID-19, a normality test was first conducted. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality, p < .05, indicated that the data was not normally distributed, so a Spearman rank-order correlation was utilized, and the results suggested a statistically significant, albeit weak, positive correlation between changes in CA and changes in IIs, r(374) = .11, p = .042.
Change in Contextual CA Scores During COVID-19
After a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indicated that the data was not distributed normally, (p < .05), a paired-samples t-test was used to determine whether there was a statistically significant mean difference between how individuals experience certain kinds of CA before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (RQ2). Several statistically significant results arose from the analysis.
First, individuals appear to have experienced more group discussion CA before COVID-19 (M = 18.86, SD = 4.50) than they have during COVID-19 (M = 17.49, SD = 4.32); t(374) = 5.71 p < .001. Additionally, individuals indicated a higher level of meeting-associated CA prior to COVID-19 (M = 18.43, SD = 4.65) and less during COVID-19 (M = 17.76, SD = 4.42); t(374) = 3.44, p = .001. Similarly, respondents again self-reported a higher score in interpersonal CA before COVID-19 (M = 18.80, SD = 4.22) than during COVID-19 (M = 18.16, SD = 4.13); t(374) = 3.50, p = .001. Individuals also experienced a decrease in public-speaking CA during COVID-19 (M = 17.62, SD = 4.48), with higher scores reported for pre-COVID-19 times (M = 18.02, SD = 4.68); t(374) = 2.12, p = .035. As with the group discussions and CA associated with meetings, individuals experienced a decrease in interpersonal CA, suggesting that, with the onset of lockdowns and work-from-home and shelter-in-place orders, which resulted in less frequent face-to-face interactions, individuals have truly experienced less CA.
IIs, CA, and Employment
To determine how employment status impacts individual experiences with IIs and CA during the pandemic (H3), a Mann-Whitney test was utilized to evaluate the relationships between employment status and IIs, and an independent t-test was used to find whether or not a relevant relationship exists between CA and employment status. The Mann-Whitney test resulted in several significant findings between employment status and the frequency, proactivity, variety, self-dominance, compensation, and relational maintenance aspects of IIs. Unemployed individuals (M = 3.79) reported experiencing more frequent IIs than did those who were employed (M = 3.56), U = 5210.00, p = .022. This finding remained consistent, as unemployed individuals (M = 4.22) also self-reported having more proactive IIs than employed individuals (M = 3.67), U = 3576.00, p < .001. Again, unemployed individuals (M = 3.52) experienced greater variety in their IIs than did employed respondents (M = 3.22), U = 4167.00, p < .001. Those who were unemployed also experienced greater self-dominance (M = 3.41) than did employed respondents (M = 3.22), U = 5055.00, p = .01. Employed individuals (M = 3.23) indicated a significantly higher level of IIs used for compensation than unemployed individuals (M = 2.86), U = 4837.00, p = .004. Respondents who indicated that they were employed (M = 3.65) also indicated using IIs for relational maintenance more so than their unemployed counterparts (M = 3.26), U = 4734, p = .002. Interestingly, an independent t-test suggested that there was not a statistically significant difference in how employed (M = 71.43, SD = 14.44) and unemployed individuals (M = 67.15, SD = 19.21) experience CA, t(372) = -1.705, p > .05.
To better understand how work environment impacted the frequency, proactivity, variety, self-dominance, compensation, and relational maintenance functions of IIs during the pandemic, the researcher ran a Kruskal-Wallis test. From this test, several statistically significant results followed. Work environment seemed to be clearly related to the frequency of IIs, as those who had a hybrid schedule (M = 3.86) and those who were unemployed (M = 3.79) experienced more frequent IIs than those who worked solely onsite (M = 3.58) or from home (M = 3.52), X2 (3) = 11.36, p = .01.
Work environment again showed a statistically significant impact on the proactivity of IIs; unemployed (M = 4.21), hybrid-scheduled (M = 3.85), and individuals working onsite (M = 3.80) experienced significantly more proactive IIs than did individuals working from home (M = 3.61), with unemployed individuals experiencing the most proactive IIs, X2 (3) = 32.27, p < 001. Unemployed individuals (M = 3.53) again experienced more variety in their IIs than individuals working onsite (M = 3.28), from home (M = 3.18), and with a hybrid schedule (M = 3.33), X2 (3) = 22.74, p < .001. Individuals working a hybrid schedule (M = 3.56) and who were unemployed (M = 3.42) experienced more self-dominance within their IIs than those who worked onsite (M = 3.22) and from home (M = 3.18), X2 (3) = 13.892, p = .003. Surprisingly, those working from home (M = 3.26) and onsite (M = 3.22) utilized IIs for compensation more than their counterparts who had a hybrid schedule (M = 2.91) or who were unemployed (M = 3.18), X2 (3) = 14.562, p = .002. Lastly, a significant difference again appeared in how employment impacted IIs used for relational maintenance, with those who worked from home (M = 3.68) using them more than those who worked onsite (M = 3.59), with a hybrid schedule (M = 3.52), or who were unemployed (M = 3.60).
Significant Demographic Findings
In addition to employment status, there were significant relationships discovered between certain demographics and respondents’ experiences with CA and IIs (H4).
Sex
An independent samples t-test indicated that there was a statistically significant correlation between sex, male (n = 180) and female (n = 189), and frequency of IIs, with females having more frequent IIs (M = 3.69, SD =.75) than males (M = 3.48, SD =.62), t(367) = -2.90, p = .004. Females’ IIs were also more proactive (M = 3.83, SD = .73) than males’ (M = 3.63, SD =.64), t(367) = −2.77, p = .006, as well as more retroactive (M = 3.97, SD = .72) than males’ IIs (M = 3.79, SD = .70), t(367) = −2.40, p = .017. Additionally, females had more variety (M = 3.30, SD = .47) and self-dominance attributes (M = 3.33, SD = .60) than did males, who experienced less variety (M = 3.19, SD = .46), t(367) = −2.22, p = .027, and self-dominance, (M = 3.15, SD = .56), t(367) = −2.97, p = .003, in their IIs.
Income
After a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normality indicated that the data was not normally distributed, a Spearman rank test was utilized to determine if there was a significant difference in people’s IIs and CA based on income: $0 to $30,000 (n = 90), $30,001 to $50,000 (n = 109), $50,001 to $70,000 (n = 97), $70,000 or more (n = 54), and those who did not wish to disclose (n = 25). Ultimately, the only relationships of significance between income, IIs, and CA were in regard to the proactivity of IIs and CA before and during COVID-19. The data suggested a weak negative correlation between income and the proactivity of IIs, r(374) = −.11, p = .035, as well as a weak positive correlation between income and CA experienced before COVID-19, r(373) = .19, p < .001, and during COVID-19, r(373) = .03, p < .001.
Age
There were several interesting relationships between age, IIs, and CA that appeared during analysis. First, the data again suggested a statistically significant, weak negative correlation between age and frequency of IIs, r(373) = −.10, p < .001, as well as a weak negative correlation between age and the proactivity of IIs, r(373) = −.146, p = .005. Additionally, there were two weak positive correlations between age and the amount of CA experienced prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. First, when looking at age and perceived intensity of CA prior to COVID-19, a weak positive correlation is suggested, r(373) = .15, p = .004. Interestingly, there is also a positive, albeit weak, correlation between age and decreased CA during the pandemic, r(373) = .10, p = .046.
Region
To determine whether or not region played a part in how individuals experience IIs and CA during the COVID-19 pandemic, a Kruskal-Wallis test was employed following a normality test that indicated that the data was not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov, p < .05). Several relationships were identified between region and the proactivity, frequency, self-dominance, and discrepancy of IIs, as well as between region and IIs used for relational maintenance and compensation.
When diving into IIs used for relational maintenance, respondents in the Pacific Northwest (M = 4.06) demonstrated much higher levels of use than the West Coast (M = 3.73), the Southeast (M = 3.48), the Midwest (M = 3.75), and the Northeast (M = 3.76), X2 (7) = 19.92, p = .006. This trend continued for compensation, with respondents residing in the Pacific Northwest (M = 3.59) experiencing more compensatory IIs, followed by the Midwest (M = 3.49), the West Coast (M = 3.48), the Northeast (M = 3.38), and the Southeast (M = 2.95), X2 (7) = 49.92, p < .001.
Residents in the Pacific Northwest (M = 3.35) also noted more discrepant IIs, followed by residents in the West Coast (M = 3.34), the Midwest (M = 3.27), the Northeast (M = 3.23), and the Southeast (M = 3.11), X2 (7) = 14.31, p = .046. Respondents residing in the Southeast (M = 3.90) also noted more proactive IIs, with the Midwest (M = 3.67), Northeast (M = 3.56), West Coast (M = 3.51), and Pacific Northwest (M = 3.47) reporting less proactive IIs, X2 (7) = 30.95, p < .001. Lastly, respondents from the Southeast (M = 3.70) experienced more frequent IIs than the West Coast (M = 3.51), Midwest (M = 3.48), the Pacific Northwest (M = 3.34), and the Northeast (M = 3.50), X2 (7) = 15.56, p = .03. Interestingly, the Southeast experienced the most self-dominance in their IIs (M = 3.38), followed by the West Coast (M = 3.15), Midwest (M = 3.12), Northeast (M = 3.04), and the Pacific Northwest (M = 3.03), X2 (6) = 21.30, p = .003.
Race
A Kruskal-Wallis test indicated significant difference among races when comparing them with the II attribute of frequency and the function of compensation. When reviewing the relationship between race and the frequency of IIs, there was a significant difference between Asian (M = 3.56), Black (M = 3.49), Latinx (M = 3.00), Mixed Race (M = 3.81), Native American (M = 3.59), White (M = 3.63), and those who chose not to disclose (M = 4.00), X2 (6) = .70, p = .012. The results indicate that those of Mixed Race and those who chose not to disclose their race experience IIs at a higher frequency.
There was also a significant difference in II compensation scores between Asian (M = 3.42), Black (M = 3.1841), Latinx (M = 3.25), Mixed Race (M = 2.06), Native American (M = 3.39), White (M = 3.16), and those who chose not to disclose their race (M = 2.75), X2 (6) = .69, p = .023. Of note, regarding compensation, Mixed Race individuals utilized IIs for compensation much less than any of the other races, with Asians using them for compensation the most. Further quantitative and qualitative research would be needed to determine why these variations exist.
Personality
To determine if there was a difference based on personality in how people experience IIs and CA during the COVID-19 pandemic, the researcher asked respondents to choose whether they were shy, reserved, social, outgoing, or some combination of those. A Kruskal-Wallis test indicated that there were several differences experienced by individuals based on personality; interestingly, those who chose to identify themselves as shy, reserved, and social, experienced more variety (M = 3.80), X2 (13) = 26.00, p = .017, and discrepancy (M = 3.83), X2 (13) = 26.17, p = .016, in their IIs than any of the other personality types, and those who identified as shy, reserved, social, and outgoing experienced IIs more for rehearsal (M = 5.00), X2 (13) = 28.87, p = .007, compensation (M = 3.75), X2 (13) = 27.98, p = .009, and relational maintenance (M = 4.75), X2 (13) = 43.79, p < .001. Lastly, those who identified as outgoing and social also experienced the highest levels of CA during the pandemic (M = 84.75), X2 (13) = 72.09, p < .001, whereas those who identified as shy, reserved, social, and outgoing had higher levels of CA prior to the pandemic (M = 95.50), X2 (13) = 90.12, p < .001.
Discussion
Initially, this study theorized that there would be a dramatic shift in how individuals experienced IIs based on the assumption that individuals would adhere to the work-from-home and shelter-in-place orders that were set in place to slow the spread of COVID-19 (H1); however, the null hypothesis was not rejected, as a majority of respondents did not experience a shift in the frequency of which they experience IIs. This may be due, in large part, to the fact that not everyone adheres to the orders—there are people who go without masks or who disregard requirements to remain socially distanced; if these individuals are included in the respondents, this would skew the data and not truly reflect how individuals who have followed the orders have experienced IIs. Additionally, cognitive load may have impacted the results as well; individuals whose cognitive load remained high (e.g., students attempting to keep up in virtual classes, working parents who were also managing families, and those working virtually) may have had less opportunity for IIs than those whose loads were less (e.g., the unemployed). Additionally, previous studies have suggested that decreased face-to-face interaction results in decreased IIs; notably, Edwards et al. (1988) determined that individuals experience fewer or less frequent IIs when they have less actual interaction. During the COVID-19 pandemic, an increase in social restrictions led to decreased in-person interactions, which could very well explain why, of those who did experience a change in IIs, many experienced a significant decrease.
Another explanation for why a majority of individuals have not experienced changes in their IIs could be due to the fact that they utilize social media and other communication platforms to reflect on previous communications and prepare for upcoming episodes. Most respondents (over 90%) indicated that they utilize other platforms for reflection, and with technology acting as an aid for reflection, there may potentially be less need for IIs, especially retroactive IIs or IIs used for relational maintenance, as people can simply refer back to previous communication.
The results of the study did provide support for the hypothesis that a majority of individuals experienced a decrease in CA during the pandemic (H2), which could be due to the unprecedented decrease in social activities being hosted. Surprisingly, as individuals reported experiencing an increase or decrease in IIs, they also reported experiencing a similar change in CA. Previous research has indicated that IIs can be used to manage CA (Honeycutt et al., 2009), so ultimately, the decrease in frequency of IIs and lesser intensity of CA appear to be related—based on further insight provided when breaking down the CA scores—to the reduced levels of communication activities that induce CA such as public speaking, meetings, group discussion, and even interpersonal communication. When comparing the scores of pre-COVID meeting, discussion, public speaking, and interpersonal CA with the CA scores during the pandemic, all forms of CA appear to have decreased during the pandemic (RQ1).
Work status and environment were also proven to play an important role in how individuals experience IIs (H3), with unemployed respondents reporting more frequent, proactive, and varied IIs with higher levels of self-dominance. Employed individuals, on the other hand, indicated significantly higher levels of IIs used for compensation and relational maintenance. Previous studies have indicated that reduced interaction often leads to reduced IIs, which is contrary to the results of this study, unless one takes into consideration that respondents’ communication activities may have not changed quite so much as was intended by shelter-in-place orders. Though orders and rules have been established to fight the spread of COVID-19, the daily news alone is evidence that some individuals disregard these safety requirements and continue to have consistent interaction; thus, it could be suggested, from these results, that though the unemployed individuals are not having professional interactions, they may be continuing to have other interactions.
Several significant findings arose from a demographic comparison of IIs and CA. First, females experienced more frequent proactive, retroactive, and self-dominant IIs than males. These findings, especially regarding females experiencing more frequent IIs, support previous studies (Edwards et al., 1989) which have found females are more likely to experience a higher frequency of IIs than males. Previous studies (Edwards et al., 1989; Hill et al., 1976; Honeycutt & Sheldon, 2018; Ross and Holmberg, 1992 Ross & Holmberg, 1992) have noted several possible reasons for this, including that females typically tend to be more aware of relationships, and the nuances therein, and think about those relationships more often. When taking the context of the pandemic into consideration, one must consider that many females are not only being asked to work from home, but to also act as the predominant caretakers of children, as daycares and schools also closed or shifted to online services, so relationships may be more at the forefront of females’ minds than ever before. While this responsibility may also fall upon some males (e.g., single fathers, males in same-sex relationships, etc.), because of these heightened responsibilities, it makes sense that, as a demographic, females would continue to experience more frequent IIs than men.
The current study, however, did not align with previous research regarding variety, self-dominance, or the proactivity and retroactivity of IIs. Edwards et al. (1989) found that males experienced more variety in IIs than females, “male M = 4.87; female M = 4.69; t(280) = 1.64; p > .05,” (p. 269), and that there were no statistically significant differences in how the sexes experience self-dominance, proactivity, or retroactivity of IIs (Allen, 1990; Edwards et al., 1989). The discrepancy between the results of the current study and previous data suggests that these changes are, in fact, possibly due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, to provide further insight on these differences, qualitative data from before and during the pandemic would be necessary to determine which factors are most influencing the increased difference in how the sexes are experiencing IIs.
When viewing how IIs and CA varied based on income, the results indicate several things: first, as income increases, the proactivity of IIs decreases; second, as income increases, so does CA. There was a significant positive correlation between income and CA before and during COVID-19, suggesting that increased CA is related to income, regardless of the pandemic, and that those who earn more annually tend to experience higher levels of CA. Of note, however, is that the correlation is significantly weaker during COVID-19 than before, indicating that though there is still a positive correlation between income and CA, the correlation became weaker during the pandemic.
There were also several interesting relationships between IIs, CA, and demographics that appeared during analysis (H4). First, as individuals age, the frequency of their IIs decrease, which is in accordance with previous studies in IIs (Honeycutt & Sheldon, 2018). Similarly, this study found that, with age, people’s IIs become less and less proactive—used less for planning. Previous research (Sealy & Sheldon, 2019) has also suggested a negative relationship between age and frequency of IIs. Though additional research would be required to determine exactly why there is a negative correlation between age and IIs, there could be several reasons for this. For example, as individuals age and become more isolated, they could experience less frequent IIs because there are fewer opportunities for interactions, and previous studies have indicated that lonely or isolated individuals experience fewer IIs (Edwards et al., 1988; Honeycutt & Sheldon, 2018). This study also found that prior to COVID-19, age and CA increased or decreased in the same direction; for example, the older a person is, the more CA they would report experiencing prior to COVID-19. However, during COVID-19, the relationship between age and perceived decrease in CA was also positive, suggesting that the older or younger one is, the more or less, respectively, they have experienced a decrease in perceived CA.
During the pandemic, mental health as a whole has been heavily affected. As communities have gone into lockdown and self-isolation has become a norm, some individuals have experienced more depression, and suicidal ideation has increased in children and young adults (Frier, 2020; St. Amour, 2020). In a volume devoted to the use of IIs for mental health, Honeycutt (2019) notes that, to avoid worst-case-thinking and the anxiety that comes with it, individuals should focus on proactivity and avoid catastrophic thinking.
When delving into region, there were several interesting relationships that came to light, the most notable being that the respondents residing in the Pacific Northwest experienced some of the most frequent, proactive, self-dominant, and discrepant IIs. To better understand why this is, future research should delve into the kinds of IIs being experienced through the use of qualitative data gained via focus groups or interviews. Another area that would benefit from qualitative data is how racial groups experience IIs and CA. There were several interesting results regarding how frequently the different races utilized IIs, and how often those IIs were used for compensation.
Of particular note for this study is how individuals experienced IIs and CA based on personality traits. Respondents had to identify themselves as shy, social, reserved, or outgoing, or any combination of those; those who identified as shy, reserved, social, and/or outgoing indicated experiencing a greater variety in their IIs, as well as more discrepant IIs. They also noted experiencing IIs more for compensation, rehearsal, and relationship management; these findings indicate that, regardless of the social restrictions placed on society, an individual’s drive to be social and outgoing is what may truly impact their IIs and CA. Those who were more social or outgoing indicated using IIs more for compensation and relational maintenance, so this could suggest that those who are less social and less outgoing have fewer communication episodes about which to have IIs or CA.
Implications, Limitations, and Future Research
This study suggests that the pandemic has had an impact on how individuals experience IIs and CA when living under social restrictions loosely similar to those experienced by the incarcerated and elderly (Jewkes & Johnston, 2009). The lack of face-to-face communication and required isolation has changed how individuals experience IIs, and further research is needed to determine how IIs are experienced before and during a pandemic.
To produce a more accurate representation of how individuals’ IIs and CA have truly changed during the pandemic, the researcher would have had to obtain the results of the Survey of Imagined Interactions (Honeycutt, 2010a) and PRCA-24 (McCroskey, 1982) of the participants prior to the pandemic and pair those results with those obtained from the same respondents during the pandemic; only then could the data be truly reflective of the changes that occurred during the pandemic.
The current research is based solely on the perception of the participants, which may not provide an accurate representation of how experiences with IIs and CA have changed. Obtaining more accurate data from pre-COVID times would also improve insight into why the discrepancies exist between previous and current studies regarding IIs, CA, and demographics. However, the question remains: how can researchers prepare for a situation like a pandemic ahead of time? One method of approach is to randomly sample populations at various times to provide consistent, up-to-date representations of the data for more accurate comparison.
Future research should also include diving into the content of the IIs experienced during the pandemic; because this study was designed to look solely at the changes in frequency of IIs and CA, future studies should include more qualitative data to determine how IIs function during pandemics as compared to non-pandemic times. Supplemental questions should also be added to provide context; for example, COVID-19 fatigue has been proven to impact people differently based on their predispositions (Tomiyoshi, 2020); for example, someone who enjoys being at home and working at home would be impacted much differently than an individual who thrived on social interactions and attending live events. Additionally, though this survey does include responses from various races and ethnicities, a majority of the respondents were white; COVID-19 has disproportionately impacted people of color (Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, 2020), and as this study’s participant range is majority white, the data cannot be as accurate as it would be with a more comprehensive population sampling.
Conclusion
Ultimately, the results of this study confirm that drastic changes in socialization and communication brought on by periods of isolation—such as during the COVID-19 pandemic—impact how individuals experience IIs and CA. Regarding the age and sex of respondents, this study affirmed the results of several previous studies; the aforementioned discrepancies between the current and previous studies could be due to the additional responsibilities taken on by females responsible for parenting or caregiving during COVID-19.
This study also demonstrates that employment status and work environment play an important role in how individuals experience IIs, with unemployed individuals often experiencing more frequent IIs; however, those who were employed, taken as a whole, experienced IIs for compensation and relational maintenance more than those who were unemployed. Leaders trying to reduce CA and promote an intentional use of IIs could benefit from this study and use it to guide their practices; for example, knowing that females are having more proactive IIs at this time than their male counterparts could allow management to introduce professional development opportunities that increase males’ proactive IIs and help moderate CA in both sexes.
As individuals continue social isolation and restricted face-to-face contact, whether out of choice, because of fear, or out of requirement, this study could also be used to assist people in using IIs to reduce CA. The current study suggested a weak positive correlation between CA and IIs, meaning that as CA increases, so do IIs and vice versa, and intentional practices using IIs could instead decrease CA (Honeycutt et al., 2009).
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
