Ethnopharmacological Uses of Cannabis in the Arabic–Islamic Golden Age from the IXth to the XVIth Century CE

Abstract

Cannabis has been used as a medicinal plant for over two thousand years and has played a significant role in the ethnopharmacological practices of numerous cultures throughout history. The aim of this study is to explore the medicinal uses of Cannabis as documented in the Arabic pharmacopoeia during the medieval period from the IX^th to the XVI^th century AD. This study is based on a historical and ethnopharmacological approach, analyzing a variety of Arabic medical manuscripts, treatises, and texts dating from the IX^th to the XVI^th century. The analysis revealed that Cannabis has properties to treat different ailments, including endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases; disorders of the nervous system, respiratory system, digestive system, genitourinary system; conditions affecting the skin and subcutaneous tissue; diseases of the articular system and conjunctive tissue; as well as various undefined symptoms, signs, and morbid states. These therapeutic effects were achieved through the use of various parts of the Cannabis plant, such as seeds, leaves, roots, and flowering tops (inflorescences). However, its use was also related to cultural and religious considerations, influencing its utilization and acceptance of its properties. The historical study of Cannabis in the Arabic pharmacopeia highlights its significance as a key element in traditional medicine. Its diverse therapeutic applications, documented centuries ago, continue to resonate within modern medical research. By examining this ancient practice provides a deeper understanding of the enduring medicinal value of Cannabis and its lasting influence on contemporary therapeutic approaches.

Keywords

ethnopharmacological approach medieval manuscripts arabic pharmacopoeia traditional therapies

Introduction

For centuries, hemp (a dioecious annual plant of the Cannabaceae family) coexisted in perfect harmony within Arabic–Islamic societies. It was used as a source of relief and healing for diseases, as food, and as a provider of fiber and textiles (Abel 1980; Petrovska 2012; Piluzza et al. 2013). It was a subject of great interest to the scientific community, and we find nothing no evidence in their writings to suggest that hemp was considered illicit. However, beginning in the XIII^th century, under the convulsed and troubled historical circumstances of the time, occurred that radically altered the previously harmonious relationships with hemp. During this period, Islamic scholars such as the Olemas and Alfaquis who were responsible for maintaining religious orthodoxy and social cohesion, turned their attention to hemp and initiated what can be described as an unprecedented crusade against it in Islamic history. Ideologically, this campaign was accompanied by a significant redefinition of Cannabis. What was once regarded as a source of food was later reclassified as a substance deemed “toxic and harmful,” and consequently declared illicit (haram), equivalent to wine in its prohibition (Clarke and Merlin 2016; Gedik and Avinc 2020; Gomez, Hu and Clarke 2021; Merlin 2003; Piluzza et al. 2013).

Before the rise of Islam, Arabs were already familiar with the use of hemp, influenced by both Eastern and Greek civilizations. Thousands of years earlier, the plant and its derivatives were widely used in China, India, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Egypt. Hemp served various purposes, including medicinal applications, textile and fiber production, nutritional uses (hemp seeds), and for both psychotropic and curative use (Abel 1980; Bouloc 2013; Gedik and Avinc 2020; Li 1974; Touw 1981; Turner, Elsohly and Boeren 1980).

The therapeutic and narcotic properties of Cannabis were recognized long before the Common Era with documented use in ancient China, India and the Middle East (Li 1974, 1975). One of the most important events in the transmission of ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological knowledge about hemp was the IX^th century Arabic translation of Dioscorides “Materia Medica” (originally written in the first century CE), particularly Liber II: simplicium medicamentorum temperamentis ac facultatibus. This work, along with the X^th century translation of the Aramaic Nabataean Agriculture, played a crucial role in preserving and disseminating ancient knowledge of medicinal plants, including hemp (Dawson 1934; Faulkner 1969).

From there, its use quickly spread to Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. In Morocco, hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) holds a significant place, especially in the Rif Mountains, where its cultivation and use have evolved over centuries. While the plant is believed to have first arrived in Morocco during the Arab invasions in the 7^th century AD, it wasn't until the XV^th century that its cultivation began in the Ketama region, located in the heart of the Rif, primarily among the Sanhaja Tribe (Bordes and Labrousse 2004). Cannabis cultivation gained formal recognition in the XIX^th century under Sultan Moulay Hassan I, who authorized its cultivation for local consumption in five douars (villages) of the Ketama, Beni Seddate, and Beni Khaled tribes, likely as a strategy to pacify the region (Bachir et al. 2022; Chouvy 2008; Meklach et al. 2010, 2019; Merzouki and Molero Mesa 1999; Merzouki and Merzouki 2021; Merzouki, Edderfoufi and Molero Mesa 1994, 2002; Ouhtit et al. 2024). Although Cannabis cultivation was legalized in Morocco in 2021 for medical, cosmetic, and industrial purposes (Bulletin Official 2021).

This paper aims to explore and document the historical role and therapeutic applications of Cannabis in traditional Arabic medicine from the 9^th to the 16^th century AD. It provides a comprehensive overview of the plant's medicinal uses and its significance within the context of the Arabic–Islamic Golden Age.

Vernacular Cannabis Names

It is first necessary to briefly outline the Arab scientific terminology for Cannabis, which reflects both the diversity of linguistic traditions and the evolving knowledge surrounding its medicinal application. Lozano Camara (1996) analyzed and described the terminology found in Cannabis-related manuscripts, treatises, dictionaries, and botanical glossaries of the period. In the IX^th century^, Cannabis entered Arabe Countries through two main routes. The first was from India via Persia, leading to the Arabic term qinnab hindī (Indian hemp) (Taha 2010). The second route was through the transmission of Greek medical and cultural knowledge, particularly via translated texts (Hamarneh 1972).

The dual introduction of Cannabis into the Arab world through Persian-India and Graeco-Roman channels not only shaped the scientific understanding of the plant but also significantly influenced the lexicon used to describe it. As Cannabis became known to Arab physicians, lexicographers, and botanists, a rich vernacular and technical nomenclature developed. These names reflect the plant's geographical origins and botanical characteristics as well as the intercultural exchanges that informed Arab-Islamic science.

The main vernacular and scientific terms used in classical Arabic texts to designate Cannabis and it various forms are:

1. Qinnab: appears in numerous forms: qinnab, qunnab, qunbus, qanbas, qunbuz, qannām, qinnam, qannamīl, qunayniba, qinnab bustānī, qinnab barrī, qinnab hindī, qinnab rūmī. These terms were widely discussed by lexicologists regarding their Arabic, Persian, Assyrian, Greek or Latin origins. The term was also used to indicate the grains, the cortex or the fiber of the plant, though qinnab and qunnab were the most common in the scientific designations of Cannabis. Compound terms of the qannab such as qinnab bustānī, qinnab barrī, qinnab hindī, and qinnab rūmī have varied histories: the two first are the oldest therefore not in use, appears in XIII^th century sources, and the last in XVI^th century sources. Arab scientists distinguished ‘’qinnab bustānī’’ (cultivated Cannabis) from ‘’qinnab barrī’’ (wild Cannabis) by following a nomenclature also found in Greek sources, where Dioscorides (Greek scientist) differentiated kànnabis from agria kànnabis. The term qinnab hindī or “Cannabis indica Lam.”, has comparatively recent history, appearing in XIII^th century sources, in connection with increased awareness of the plant's psychotropic properties and the emergence of its ritual use within the Arabic–Islamic world (Hamarneh 1972).

2. Šahdānaў: It appears in numerous forms: Šahdanāў, Šahdānaq, Šahdānaў, Šahdānak, Šarāniq, Šanāriq, Šahdānà, Šahdānah, Šahrānaў, Šāh dānaq, Šāh dānaў, Šādānaq, Šahdānaў bustānī, Šahdanāў barrī, Šahdānaў al-barr, Šahdānaў hindī. This term reflects clear influences from the Persian scientific traditions. Šāh-dānah translates literally as ‘’king of grains’’.

3. Others: Several additional terms appear in Arab-Islamic treaties to denote the Cannabis plant. The term Abaq, for example, is used only in botanical dictionaries, and glossaries with purely lexicological content. The term Banў, of Indian origin entered Arabic via Persian as Bang, and was later Arabized to Banў. However, in Persian usage, this term was also attributed to other species such as Hyoscyamus albus L. and Hyoscyamus niger L. Other less commonly used terms for Cannabis in Arabic sources include Habb al-sumna, Šaўarat Ibrāhīm, Tannūm, and Tīl and habb al-tīl.

Materials and Methods

Literature Review

To investigate the ethnopharmacological uses of Cannabis during the Medieval period, a range of medicinal treatises, pharmacognosy texts, and herbal manuscripts written during the period under study. These sources span multiple languages, including Arabic, Spanish, English and French translations. Figure 1 highlights the major medical texts and their documented uses of Cannabis in Arabic medicine.

Figure 1.

Key chronology of Cannabis ethnopharmacological uses in the Arabic Islamic Golden Age from the 09^th to the 16^th century C.E. (Merzouki, Edderfoufi and Molero Mesa 1994).

Selection Criteria for the Manuscripts

The manuscripts and treatises were selected based on several criteria:

The Content

Arabic manuscripts that mentioned Cannabis and its medicinal properties were included in the study. Original versions of the manuscripts are written in Arabic.

Authors

Arab physicians, botanists and pharmacologists, such as Avicenna (The Canon of Medicine), Al Rāzī (Al hawi), and Ibn al-Baytar (Treatise on simples) documented the therapeutic uses of Cannabis and contributed significantly to the translation movement. Their works played a crucial role in transmitting knowledge of medicinal substances from Arabic medical and botanical texts into Latin Europe ( Table 1 ). The contribution of these renowned physicians, botanists, and pharmacologists are also illustrated in Figure 1 .

Table 1.

Chronological Guide of Authors and Books in the Arabic Islamic Golden Age from the 09^th to the 16^th Century C.E.

N°	Authors & Period	Books
1	Abū lhassan Ali bno Sahl Rabban Al-Tabari (838-870 A.D.)	Firdausu’l-Hikmat
2	Tabbit Ibn Qorra (834-901 A. D.)	Kitab Zakhira fi ‘ Ilmi Tib
3	Abū Bakr Muhammad ben Zakariya Al Rāzī (Al Rāzī) (865-925)	Al hawi al Kabir
4	Ibn Waḥshīyah, Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī (s. X)	The Agriculture Nabatea
5	Ali Ibn Abbas Al-Majūssi (930–994 CE)	Al-Malaki
6	Al-Zahrawi Abū L’Qasim Jalaf Ibn abbas (936-1013)	Medicinal powders, Chapter 5° and 6°
7	Abi Al-Rayhan Muhammad Ben Ahmad Al-Birūni (973-1051)	Kitab al-Saydanah
8	Avicena, Abū Ali Al-Hussayn Bnū Abdellah Ibn Sina (980-1037)	Al Qanon fi Tteb
9	Ibn Al-Wafid (1007-1074)	Libro de almohada
10	Al-Hashimi Ahmad Bno Issa (470-1077)	tratado de consultas médicas, kitab al mayalis fi tteb
11	Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248)	Al-Jami’ li Mufradat al Adweya wa al-Aghtheya
12	Zakarya al-Qazwini (1280)	Ajaeb al-Makhluqat wa gharaeb al-mawjudat
13	Dawûd al Antaki (d. 1599)	"Tadkirat awli-albab wa-l jamia’ li-l'ajab -al.'oujâb"

Geographic Relevance

Manuscripts produced in regions with historical ties to both Arabo–Islamic and European medicinal traditions (Al-Andalus, the Islamic Golden Age, and Christian Europe) were included in the study.

Data Collection

The books listed in Table 1 were collected from various sources, including the biology department collection of the faculty of sciences in Tetouan-Morocco, the General Public Library of Tetouan and private collections. These works were widely used by scholars and practitioners of the time and are considered among the most popular texts in the Arabic–Islamic Pharmacopoeia from the IX^th to the XVI^th Century.

The study of medieval sources of medical and pharmaceutical sources presents numerous challenges and requires an interdisciplinary approach. These sources were handwritten in Arabic script and use the scientific terminology and conceptual frameworks of their era, often complicating the accurate identification and interpretation of contemporaneous terms. This research relied on various reference works and dictionaries that compile lexicons of plants and disease, including Kitab Al–Taisir Fil–Mudawat Wal–Tadbir by Abū Marwan ibn Zohr (annotated by Michael Al-khouri, Dar al-Fikr, 1^st edition 1982), and Tuhfat Al-Ahbab, a glossary of Moroccan medical material by an anonymous author.

Information on Cannabis and its application is widely scattered in various historical sources, necessitating a critical and cautions approach to the material. Accurate interpretation also requires thorough comparison with modern data, particularly in light of the morphological, ecological and bio-geographical characteristics of the plant species as described in medieval literature.

The Therapeutic Applications of Cannabis in Antiquity

Cannabis has been used therapeutically since antiquity, with documented applications dating back to approximately 3000 years BC. One of the earliest known references appears in China (2737 BCE) in the first medical text attributed to legendary Emperor Shen-Nung, who prescribed Cannabis extracts to treat various ailments.

Dioscorides, regarded by the Arabs as the greatest botanist of antiquity, also documented hemp in his influential work De Materia Medica. He noted its usefulness for making “good, strong ropes” and recommended its seeds to ‘quench geniture’ as well as its juice for treating earaches (De Materia Medica, Book III. 165, p. 390; English Translation by Gunther).

Following the translation of this work ( Table 1 ), several Arab-Muslim scientists used the therapeutic applications of Cannabis in their own writings, as:

Al-Tabari Abū lhassan Ali bno Sahl Rabban (838-870 A.D.): He noted that hemp seeds, when consumed in excess, could be used to treat hypersexuality (beads). Ibn Al-Baytar in his chapter on grains, described Cannabis seeds as cold and harmful to the stomach. He observed that while they increase sperm quantity, excessive consumption could lead to sperm desiccation.

Tabbit Ibn Qorra (834-901 A. D.): In chapter IX of “Zakhira fi ‘ Ilmi Ti’’ in the section on the deafness, it is noted that the juice of hemp seeds when mixed with the following ingredients, serve as an effective depurative: Celery seeds (Apium graveolens L.); Cardamome (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton); Fried Anise (Pimpinella anisum L.); Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.); Indien Costus (Costus arabicus L.); Mint (Mentha spicata L.); Myrrh oil; Walnut oil (Juglans nigra L.). In chapter XVI, which addresses liver and pancreatic diseases as well as simple remedies to cleanse liver arteries, he states that a mixture of hemp seed juice with Walnut (Juglans nigra L.), Madder (Rubia tincorum L.), Asarabacca (Asarum europaeum L.), and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is considered in excellent depurative. In chapter XXXI, addressing sexual health and libido regulation, particularly in terms of reducing sexual desire in men and women, the author describes three preparations involving hemp: a) sperm desiccation: a mixture of equal parts hemp seeds and broad bean seeds of baklah (Vicia faba L.) is used to reduce sperm production. b) Libido suppressant: hemp seeds and lentils, cooked in vinegar, are used to prepare a liquid that diminishes sexual desire. c)Warm medicinal food: hemp is listed alongside habb al-faqd (possibly Vitex agnus-cactus), rue seeds (Ruta graveolens) and seeds of sedâb (caraway) (Carum carvi L.) as part of a category of warming medicines believed to suppress sexual appetite.

Al Rāzī (Razes), Abū Bakr Muhammad ben Zakariya (865-925): one of the most eminent clinical physicians and a pioneering theoretical chemist of the medieval Islam medicine. His most comprehensive work is the encyclopedia Al hawi Al Kabir (Latin: Liber continens). In his treatise’’Kitāb Maẓārr al-Aghdhiyah’’ (the book on the Harmful effects of foods), he discusses various substances and their physiological impacts. Regarding hemp, Al-Rāzī notes that its hemp seeds may cause headaches and blurred vision, but he also suggests remedies: these effects, he writes, can be alleviated by drinking cold water, chewing ice, or eating acidic fruits.

Ibn Waḥshīyah, Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī (s. X): Nabatean Agriculture: In his book, Ibn Waḥshīyah describes the hemp plant, its seeds and their various uses. He discusses its optimal cultivation conditions, reflecting the broader interest in agronomy and pharmacology during the Islamic Golden Age. According to Ibn Waḥshīyah, hemp seeds possess a hot nature and their ingestion can produce internal heat and lead to headaches. He also repots a common belief at the time: when pulverized and ingested, hemp seeds can induce vomiting.

Al-Majūssi Ali Ibn Abbas (930–994 CE): In his medical encyclopedia, ‘‘Kitab Al-Malaki’’ (The Royal Book), (later translated into Latin as Liber Regalis), he attributes antiepileptic proprieties to hemp, recommending nasal instillation to treat neurological disorders, a method consistent with the period's pharmacological practices. This prescription reflects the broader integration of cannabis into early Islamic medical therapeutics, particularly for disorders of the brain and nerve.

Al-Zahrawi Abū L’Qasim Jalaf Ibn Abbas (936-1013): In the fifth chapter of ‘’Medicinal powders’’, he describes the diuretics and purifying effects of hemp powder's use in treating premature ejaculation and urinary disorders.

Al-Birūni Abi Al-Rayhan Muhammad Ben Ahmad (973-1051): In “Kitab Al Saydana fi al-Tibb” (The Book of Pharmacy in Medicine), he states that hemp seeds, eaten in excess, can cause Oligospermia. He also describes therapeutic applications of hemp seed oil, recommending it for ear disorders and chronic pains.

Avicena, Ibn Sina Abū Ali Al-Hussayn Bnū Abdellah (980-1037): He provides one of the most comprehensive accounts of the medicinal proprieties and therapeutic uses of cannabis in medieval Islamic literature, listing effects including resolutive, siccative, analgesic for ear pain, expectorant, choleretic, laxative, antiepileptic, treatment for pityriasis, aphrodisiac, adipogenic, and remedies for urinary and sexual disorders.

Ibn Al-wafid (1007-1074): In “Al-Wissada fi al-Tibb” (The Pillow Book of Medicine), he notes effects on the genitourinary system and semen desiccation.

Al-Hashimi Ahmad Bno Issa (470-1077): an Andalusian physician from Toledo, wrote “Kitab Al Majalis Fi al Tibb”, (Medical Consultations) on the consultations attended with his teacher Al-Taymi. In the seventeenth consultation (Majlis 67), he records treating cough with fried hemp seeds mixed with other ingredients.

Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248): one of the most distinguished botanist and pharmacologists of the medieval Islamic world, wrote ‘’Al-Jami’ li Mufradat al Adweya wa al-Aghdheya” (The compendium of simple Medicaments and Foods), in which he synthesizes Greco-Roman, Indian, and Islamic medical knowledge. In the third chapter (on medicinal substances and poisons), he offers extensive descriptions of Cannabis. Ibn al-Baytar draws on Dioscorides, who described hemp as a plant used for making strong cords. He notes that its leaves resemble those of the ash tree, emit an unpleasant odor, and that its branches are long and hollow. The seeds, which are round and edible, were said to desiccate semen when consumed in excess. The juice of green hemp seeds, when instilled into the ears, was used to alleviate ear pain.

He also references Galen, who claimed that hemp seeds expel intestinal gases, reduce abdominal swelling, and greatly dry out semen. Avicena (Ibn Sina) affirmed that hemp seeds disrupt the balance of the bodily humors. Al-Dimachki classified Cannabis as warm in the second degree and dry in the first, noting its use in drying stomach disorders, eliminating internal worms, and purifying the brain when its juice is applied nasally. Ishak Ben Imrân, described Cannabis as indigestible, harmful to the stomach, and a cause of headache and bilious blood, associating its ingestion with migraines, constipation and diuretic effects. He also observed that it could lead to mental disturbances and mood instability due to excessive gas production in the brain. According to Ishak ben Souleiman, frying hemp seeds reduces their harmful effects, which can be further mitigated by consuming sweetened Oxymel (mixture of vinegar, alcohol and honey). As for external applications, hemp leaves were used to treat pityriasis (cutaneous disease affecting the scalp) by crushing the leaves and washing the head with their juice. Razes, in “Kitab-madhar Al-Aghdhiya”, reiterated that hemp seeds cause headache and visual disturbances, which could be alleviated by cold water, chewing ice, or acidic fruits. Ibn al-Baytar himself concluded that small quantities of Cannabis may cause intoxication, while larger doses can result in imbecility, mental instability, and even death. He also described the therapeutic uses of hemp oil, characterizing it as warm and dry, and effective in treating uterine contractions.

Al-Qazwini Zakaria (1280): authored the widely read encyclopedic work “Ajā’ib Al-Maĥlūqāt wa Ġarā’ib Al-Mawjūdāt” (Marvels of creatures and strange things existing). In the chapter on plants and their astrological correspondences, he discusses Cannabis, offering both botanical and pharmacological observations. Al-Qazwini distinguishes between two types of Cannabis: 1-The wild form, which grows to about an arm's length in height, has white leaves, and produces pepper like fruits. 2-The cultivated form, referred to as Chahdanj, which is associated with strong psychoactive effects. He notes that ingesting Chahdanj may lead to mental disturbance and madness, as it is a drug. Despite these warnings, he acknowledges its therapeutic value, reporting that Cannabis can stop hemorrhages relieve chronic pain (including gout) and that both its seeds and juice can be used to alleviate eye pain.

Al-Antaki Dawûd 1599): authored the comprehensive pharmacological compondium “ Tadkirat awli-albab wa-l jamia ‘ li-l'ajab Al-'oujâb “ (The reminder for the intelligent and collection of wonders) commonly known as ‘Tadkirat Dawûd’. In this work, he refers to hemp fiber not only as a textile material but also as a therapeutic agent. Old clothing made from hemp fiber is described as an established remedy for sores, helminthiasis, and stomach ulcers.

Discussion

It is evident that the extensive efforts of Muslim scientists, achieved through the translations, assimilations, and interpretations of ancient ethnopharmacological and medical works firmly established the therapeutic applications of Cannabis. These scholars used different parts of the plant (leaves, seeds, and roots) to treat conditions not previously addressed in Chinese, Greeks, Romans, and Hindus traditions. Their work significantly expanded upon earlier knowledge by integrating empirical observations with clinical practices (Lozano 2001; Baker et al. 2003; Taha 2010). Cannabis based preparations were used to treat epilepsy and facial paralyzes, alleviate ocular pain and ear obstruction, and treat dermatological conditions such as scalp exfoliation and pityriasis. The plant was also used in the treatment of digestive disorders, due to its resolvent, siccative, choleretic, adipogenic, and antiemetic properties. These preparations were also used to treat respiratory ailments through their expectorant and curative effects on dry cough. Additionally, Cannabis was used to regulate urogenital disorders, including urinary tract inflammation, kidney stones, menstrual irregularities, and painful uterine contractions. It was also prescribed for conditions such as premature ejaculation, oligospermia, male sexual impotence, and, in certain cases, hypersexuality; it was even recommended as an aphrodisiac.

Table 2 illustrates some of the traditional uses of Cannabis described by Arab scientists that have been supported by current scientific research.

Table 2.

Traditional Uses of Cannabis Documented by Arab Scientist and Their Validation by Modern Scientific Research.

Categories	Treated Diseases and Symptoms	Used Parts	Authors & Period	Previous References
Neurological disorders and epilepsy	Epilepsy	Leaf (juice)	Al- Majūssi (930–994 CE), Al Rāzī (Rases) (865-925) and Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248)	Van Rensburg et al. 2020; Friedman and Sirven 2017; Szaflarski et al. 2018; Carter 2020
Analgesic	Pain relief	Hemp seed (oil)	Al-Qazwini (1280), Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248) and Al-Birūni (973-1051)	Lavie-Ajayi and Shvartzman 2019; Russo 2019
Skin disease	ear infections, skin rashes, and inflammation	Seeds	Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037), Al Rāzī (865-925)	Kupczyk, Reich and Szepietowski 2009; Sheriff et al. 2020; Gupta 2021; Río et al. 2018; Baswan et al. 2020
	pityriasis, lichen, joint diseases, ophthalmitis, edema, and wounds		Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037)
Anti-tumor Properties
	Tumors	Seeds	Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248)	Abrams and Guzman 2015; Birdsall, Birdsall and Tims 2016; Boland et al. 2020; Meng et al. 2020; Andradas et al. 2021; Chhabra et al. 2023
Diuretic	Urological pain	Seeds	Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248)	Bjorling and Wang 2018; Pham, Hudnall and Nadler 2020; Sultana, Berger and Lehmann 2022; Narang et al. 2023
	Diuretic	Hemp (powder)	Al-Zahrawi (936-1013)
	Urinary disorders	Seeds	Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (980-1037)
Aphrodisiac	oligosperma (Hypersexuality)	Hemp seeds	Tabbit Ibn Qorra (834-901 A. D.), Al-Birūni (973-1051), Al-wafid (1007-1074) and Ibn al-Baytar (1197-1248)	Grimaldi, Di Giacomo and Geremia 2013; Verhaeghe et al. 2020

Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for centuries, with various methods of administration evolving over time. Traditionally, the medicinal preparations of Cannabis were administered orally, as juices, syrups, and infusions; or topically by applying compresses moistened with Cannabis extract (juice or oil), or by placing fresh or cooked leaves directly on the affected area; rectally in the form of linctuses; and through instillation of the juice into the ears or nose.

However, modern medical practice has introduced a broader range of administration methods, each with distinct pharmacokinetic profiles and therapeutic implications (Russo 2007; Loflin and Earleywine 2014; MacCallum and Russo 2018). Recent research has highlighted the therapeutic potential of cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive compound found in Cannabis, demonstrating its efficiency in treating various conditions (Nanni Alvarado, Martín del Campo Sánchez and Villamil Salcedo 2017; Chagas et al. 2014; Grotenhermen and Müller-Vahl 2012; Lowe et al. 2021).

Over 566 chemical compounds have been identified in the Cannabis plant, including 125 cannabinoids and 198 non-Cannabinoids compounds (Fordjour et al. 2023).

Conclusion

The ethnopharmacological use of Cannabis spans centuries, with its medicinal applications well-documented in the Arabic pharmacopoeia from the IX^th to the XVI^th century. This historical record underscores its importance as a therapeutic plant within Islamic medicine. Cannabis species are undoubtedly among the earliest plant-based remedies known to humanity. Over time, their use has evolved to encompass both hallucinogenic and medicinal proprieties. Cannabis was highly valued for its ability to treat a variety of conditions and symptoms, including psychiatric disorders, sexual health issues, physical pain, and digestive ailments. Given this rich historical context, it is reasonable to suggest that the vast information preserved in Arabic medical literature offers a valuable foundation for further research into the therapeutic properties of Cannabis and hemp seeds.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

This paper is part of a Ghizlane Merzouki PhD study. I would like to express my gratitude to the General public Library of Tetouan. We also thank Prof. Abderrazzak Merzouki from the Polytechnic School of Montreal for linguistic review.

ORCID iD

Fatima Zahrae Redouan

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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