Abstract
The purposes of this study were to examine factors that motivate middle school band students to practice their instrument and to validate a researcher-modified survey instrument for use with middle school music students, using self-determination theory as a theoretical lens. Fifth (10–11 years old, n = 444) and eighth grade (13–14 years old, n = 352) band students from the state of Ohio, United States’ public school districts completed a researcher-modified questionnaire that was used to collect data to determine (a) students’ levels of self-determination for practicing their instrument, (b) the relationship between students’ self-determination for practicing their instrument and the number of years they have played their instrument, (c) the relationship between students’ self-determination for practicing their instrument and the amount of time they reported practicing their instrument per week, and (d) the effect of grade level, gender, instrument choice, and private lesson study on the students’ self-determination for practicing their instrument. Positive significant relationships (p < .05) were found between middle school band student participants’ motivation to practice and (a) their years of experience playing their instrument, and (b) the amount of time spent practicing. Significant differences were also found for the variables (a) grade level for six of the seven self-determination subscales, (b) gender for two intrinsic and one extrinsic motivation subscales, (c) instrument for one intrinsic, two extrinsic, and the amotivation subscales, and (d) private lesson study for one intrinsic motivation and the amotivation subscales.
Every choice in life, from getting out of bed in the morning to choosing the activities that will fill one’s day, is the result of motivation. Motivation – “an internal state that arouses us to action, pushes us in particular directions, and keeps us engaged in certain activities” (Ormrod, 2012, p. 426) – has been examined in myriad ways, both formally by psychologists and informally by educators. Over four decades ago, Cattel, Barton, and Dielman (1972) suggested that 25% of student achievement may be attributed to student motivation. Two decades later, in an analysis of the general educational literature, Asmus (1994) noted that motivation accounted for between 11 and 27% of student achievement. With approximately one quarter of student performance possibly attributed to student motivation, it would appear to be germane to the music classroom to inspire students to engage in growth behaviors for future musical success. One fundamental way to improve on a musical instrument is through practice.
Practicing is a fundamental behavior necessary to achieve success in a skill-related domain. Anyone who has ever desired to improve a personal skill may attest that hours of work are required to achieve a basic level of performance and understanding in a field; consequently, it may be surmised that success is derived from hours of concentrated work or study. In their theory of deliberate practice, Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer (1993) suggested that activities that are authentic and focused on improving performance would create the most beneficial performance outcome, rather than those activities that were engaged in merely for their enjoyment. Studies on practice take many forms, most often including data on increasing practice time and its positive effects on the developing musician (e.g., Ericsson et al., 1993; McPherson & McCormick, 2000; Miksza, 2007; Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, & Moore, 1996). It has been suggested that the level of ability on an instrument is “almost entirely dependent on the amount of relevant practice undertaken” (Sloboda et al. 1996, p. 152). Merely spending time with a musical instrument does not necessarily count as practicing, nor does regular performance in ensemble classes. In their often-cited work, Ericsson et al. (1993) suggested that the participants in their study had achieved expertise after an average of 10,000 hours of concentrated study in a domain. While the definition of expert may vary by interpreters of Ericsson et al.’s research, it seems that dedication of time, energy, and effort are necessary to achieve competence in a skill-related domain. It is this personally relevant, focused effort that results in the achievement of particular levels of ability on a musical instrument (Sloboda et al., 1996). Moreover, deliberate practice is primarily focused on improving performance even if the activity is not inherently motivating by itself (Evans & McPherson, 2014). Therefore, the amount of concentrated practice, that is, a person’s commitment to musical development, is contingent on the quality and quantity of study. Excellent reviews of the literature regarding practice continue to be readily accessible (e.g., Hallam, 2002; Miksza, 2011).
Recent scholarship on motivation has focused on social-cognitive perspectives. One particular motivational theory that includes aspects of social dynamics, in addition to addressing the psychological needs of the individual, is self-determination theory (SDT). Succinctly, SDT asserts that innate desires govern the motivational processes of engagement and persistence in a task. SDT posits that all human activity is motivated by an instinctive need to challenge oneself and explore new points of view (Ryan & Deci, 2002). According to SDT, this stimulation to action is accomplished through the fulfillment or seeking of three psychological needs: (a) autonomy – freedom to be an individual, (b) relatedness – the desire to connect with others, and (c) competence – to feel that one possesses sufficient skill to perform a task correctly (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Ostensibly, music (specifically music performance) is a social process that is either encouraged or discouraged by social interactions with the teacher (i.e., school or private lesson instructor), parents, and peers, as well as by internal psychological processes.
Distinctively, SDT considers human processes on a continuum of self-determination and locus of causality ranging from externally motivated actions to those that are entirely internal. Recent motivational theorists argue that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can no longer be viewed as a dichotomy, but should be considered multidimensional with regulations lying along a continuum from high (intrinsic) to low (amotivation) levels of self-determination (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 2000; Evans, 2015; Kupers, van Dijk, McPherson, & van Geert, 2013; Standage & Treasure, 2002).The four types of extrinsic motivation most frequently suggested in the literature that lie between the two end-points of the continuum are: (a) integrated regulation, (b) identified regulation, (c) introjected regulation, and (d) external regulation. Each regulatory style that lies on the self-determination continuum exists with an associated perceived locus of causality that ranges from internal to external/impersonal (Evans, 2015; Standage & Treasure, 2002). While intrinsic motivation is viewed as the most self-determined form of motivation with the most internal locus of causality, the other extreme is amotivation, which represents a lack of intention and a relative absence of motivation (Vallerand, 1997). SDT asserts that intrinsic motivation and certain forms of extrinsic motivation (i.e., integrated regulation) represent the highest levels of self-determination and lead to positive achievement outcomes (Standage & Treasure, 2002). Furthermore, other types of extrinsic motivation (i.e., identified and introjected regulation) may help enable a child or adolescent to persist in activities that are personally-valued, but may be considered uninteresting to the person (Evans & McPherson, 2014; Renwick & Reeve, 2012).
While self-determination has been explored in many contexts (including education), some examination is beginning to occur within the musical domain (Renwick & Reeve, 2012). Research has investigated SDT in relation to student participation in music (e.g., Evans, 2015; Evans, McPherson, & Davidson, 2012; Renwick & Reeve, 2012). In addition, Evans et al. (2012) noted that instrumentalists reported higher levels of psychological needs fulfillment (i.e., a desire to improve one’s musical proficiency and an opportunity to make one’s own musical choices) when they were engaged in music learning rather than when they had ceased playing. Examination of perceived musical identity in relation to student self-determination has also been conducted (Evans et al., 2012). Other studies have examined only one component of SDT. For instance, Costa-Giomi, Flowers, and Sasaki (2005) examined the relatedness and approval-seeking behaviors of piano students noting that those students who discontinued instruction tended to seek more approval from their teacher, but in actuality received less teacher support. Little research, however, has directly examined self-determination to engage in musical practice. In all contexts studied, inspiring students toward intrinsic behaviors has led to increased participation and desire to improve, with Kupers et al. (2013) suggesting that healthy musical development is characterized by a move toward greater autonomy and, accordingly, self-determination.
Consequently, the purposes of this study were to examine factors that motivate middle school band students to practice their instruments and to validate a researcher-modified survey instrument for use with middle school music students, using self-determination theory as a theoretical lens. The purpose statement led to the following questions that guided this study:
What stages of self-determination do middle school band students report for their motivation to practice?
Is there a relationship between middle school band students’ self-determination for practicing their instrument and (a) the students’ years of experience on their instrument, and (b) the amount of time reported practicing per week?
Are there differences in middle school band students’ self-determination for practicing their instrument by (a) grade level, (b) gender, (c) instrument, and (d) whether or not they study their instruments privately?
Method
Participants
In order to obtain a representative sample of middle school students (ages 10–14) from the state of Ohio, United States, a purposeful sampling procedure was employed. The sampling criteria were based on geographic and demographic considerations. Participants were from schools with diverse backgrounds and economic conditions, similar to the makeup of Ohio and other neighboring states. Geographically, the Ohio Music Education Association’s (OMEA) five regions (OMEA, 2014) were considered. In addition, the Ohio Department of Education’s (ODE) typology of school districts 1 was utilized within the OMEA geographic regions to attempt to obtain a representative, diverse sample of participants.
Student participants (n = 796) from 12 schools (N = 1505) completed the Musical Practice Motivation Scale (MPMS), a researcher-adapted survey instrument specifically modified for this study (see Figure 1, Supplementary Material online). The participants were comprised of 444 (55.8%) fifth grade students and 352 (44.2%) eighth graders. The mean age of students was 11.9 years (SD = 1.67). Fifth grade students were of interest for this study since, in Ohio, as well as in many other U.S. locations, fifth grade is when instrumental music (band) instruction typically begins. These students are in the initial stages of learning about musical practice and all that it entails. Conversely, eighth graders would seem to embody different attributes that would allow comparison with the beginners. Eighth graders represent a potentially more experienced viewpoint on musical practice than the fifth grade beginners. In addition, eighth grade students are near the end of their time in middle school and characterize a population where motivation toward academics and athletics may begin to shift (Anderman & Maehr, 1994).
Thirty-four percent (n = 272) of the students reported being male, while the remaining 66% (n = 524) were female. Fifth graders had performed on their instrument for an average of 0.7 years (SD = .16), while eighth graders had played their instruments for an average of 3.26 years (SD = 1.02). The mean number of years that participants had played a band instrument was 2.01 years (SD = 1.31). Twenty-six percent (n = 209) of student respondents had received private lessons outside of school on their band instrument at some point in their musical careers with a mean of 0.26 years (SD = .44) of lessons taken. Of those 209 student participants who had received private lessons, 93 were fifth grade students (20.1% of the fifth grade sample), while 116 were eighth grade band members (33.0% of the eighth grade sample). Moreover, fifth grade student participants reported practicing an average of 3.4 days per week (SD = 1.88) with a mean of 82.8 minutes per week (SD = 68.45) practiced outside of band class on their band instrument, while eighth grade participants reported practicing an average of 2.1 days per week (SD = 1.65) with a mean of 61.4 minutes per week (SD = 60.2) practiced.
Measures
In order to accurately gauge student motivation to, and perceptions of, practice, a valid and reliable instrument was needed. Due to the similar requirements of focused attention on skill-development over a “sustained and disciplined period of time in order to develop high-level skills” (Martin, 2008, p. 135) shared by the practice of a sport and the manipulation of a musical instrument, the Echelle de Motivation vis-à-vis les Sports (EMS) was selected for use as the foundational instrument in this study. The EMS was translated and validated in English as the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-28) by Pelletier et al. (1995). The researcher adapted the SMS-28 for the music ensemble classroom by altering items to address the activity of musical practice and to be easily understood by the middle school student, rather than participation in a sport. Permission to adapt the SMS-28 was obtained prior to the beginning of the study.
The EMS/SMS-28 was conceived as a 28-statement survey answering the question, “Why do you practice your sport?” Responses to the SMS-28 are to be rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (corresponds not at all) to 7 (corresponds exactly). Pelletier and colleagues (1995) separated the 28 SMS-28 statements into seven subscales that correspond to components of self-determination theory and intrinsic motivational processes: (a) Intrinsic Motivation—To Know, (b) Intrinsic Motivation—To Accomplish, (c) Intrinsic Motivation—To Experience Stimulation, (d) Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected, (e) Extrinsic Motivation—Identified, (f) Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation, and (g) Amotivation. Intrinsic Motivation—To Know referred to performing an activity for the pleasure of an experience that might lead to learning, exploring, or attempting something new. Intrinsic Motivation—To Accomplish was intended to assess the engagement in a task for the satisfaction of creation or achievement. The Intrinsic Motivation—To Experience Stimulation subscale was developed in order to gauge the desire to participate in an activity in order to experience motivation in the form of sensation, pleasure, or aesthetic experience. Extrinsic Motivation—Identified referred to the valuing of a behavior whereby engagement in the activity was by choice and regarded as important. Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected sought to assess views of an activity that is reinforced through feelings of guilt or anxiety when the motivational stimulus is removed and no longer needed to initiate the behavior. Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation was developed to gauge behaviors that are controlled by external sources (i.e., rewards or constraints). Finally, amotivation is considered to be a relative absence of internalization regarding an activity that is neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated (Ryan & Deci, 2002).
The adaptation of the SMS-28 to ascertain student motivational factors regarding musical practice was referred to as the Musical Practice Motivation Scale (MPMS; see Figure 1 in the Supplementary Material online). In addition to the original SMS-28 statements, the MPMS also solicited demographic information and potential motivational elements relating to practice (e.g., gender, age, grade level, instrument, number of years playing an instrument, private lesson study, other instruments played, weekly time spent practicing) for comparison with the motivational constructs of SDT. In order to gauge the validity of the MPMS for a pre-adolescent sample, higher education faculty from a Midwestern United States research university (n = 3) and a focus group of in-service middle school music educators (n = 7) completed the MPMS. Data gathered were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Comments were requested regarding word choice and presumed ease of understanding by the age group to be targeted in the study. A second step in gauging the reliability and validity of the MPMS instrument was the implementation of a pilot study conducted with a convenience sample of fifth (n = 46) and eighth grade (n = 40) band members from a single Ohio, United States, middle school. Reliability analysis of the pilot study data was computed for each subscale using Cronbach’s alpha with coefficients ranging from α =.54 to .81. (It is important to note that coefficients below .60 are traditionally deemed unreliable.) The Intrinsic Motivation subscales had greater reliability in the pilot study (Intrinsic Motivation—To Know, α =.81; Intrinsic Motivation—To Experience Stimulation, α =.76; Intrinsic Motivation—To Accomplish, α =.72) than the Extrinsic Motivation (Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected, α =.65; Extrinsic Motivation—Identified, α =.56; Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation, α =.54) and Amotivation (α = .68) subscales. As the reliability analyses were similar to those of the original version of the SMS-28 instrument, no further changes were made to the MPMS.
Procedure
Prior to administration, permission for the study was granted by the university Institutional Review Board and respective school district administrative personnel. The student survey instrument was administered in a concurrent cross-sectional design to middle school band students in the fifth and eighth grades at the end of the school year in May. Teachers received a protocol to read aloud when administering the MPMS to their fifth and eighth grade students. Students completed the MPMS on their own in their band classes and were granted up to 40 minutes to complete the survey.
Results
Data from the MPMS instrument were analyzed to assess the student participants’ levels of self-determination toward practicing (Research Question 1). The students rated their level of agreement or disagreement with the 28 questionnaire statements rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree). Individual MPMS items were grouped into seven subscales corresponding with areas of self-determination theory (SDT) and other motivational constructs.
Descriptive statistics were calculated for each of the MPMS subscales. Each MPMS subscale was comprised of four questionnaire items. Subscale scores were calculated by adding the four items of each subscale together. This allowed for subscale scores to potentially range from 4 (a Strongly Disagree response to each of the four statements) to 28 (a Strongly Agree response to each of the four statements). The summing of items is acceptable as all subscales contained the same number of items, in this instance, four. The means and standard deviations for each of the MPMS subscales are displayed in Table 1.
Ranking of MPMS subscale scores.
Note. The range of possible responses in this table is from 4 (1 – Strongly Disagree on each of the four statements) to 28 (7 – Strongly Agree on each of the four statements).
The Intrinsic Motivation—To Know subscale was rated the highest of the seven subscales, while the Amotivation subscale had the lowest level of agreement. The three Intrinsic Motivation subscales were rated higher in agreement than the three Extrinsic Motivation subscales and Amotivation.
Self-determination, years of experience, and amount of time spent practicing
The second research question examined the relationship between middle school band students’ self-determination for practicing their instrument and (a) the students’ years of experience on their instrument, and (b) the amount of time spent practicing their instrument. To address the first part of the question, Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients were calculated between the MPMS subscale scores and the number of years that students reported playing their instrument (see Table 1 in the Supplementary Material online).
There were six statistically significant correlations between the MPMS subscale scores and the number of years playing a musical instrument. Years of experience was significantly negatively correlated with five of the seven MPMS subscales, including Intrinsic Motivation—To Know, Intrinsic Motivation—To Accomplish, Intrinsic Motivation—To Experience Stimulation, Extrinsic Motivation—Identified, and Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected. Conversely, the Amotivation subscale was significantly positively correlated, while the Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation subscale was not significantly correlated. All correlations were weak with an r of .33 or less.
The relationship between middle school band students’ self-determination for practicing their instrument and the amount of time reported practicing per week was also examined. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients were calculated between the MPMS subscale scores and the amount of time students reported practicing per week. In order to best represent the amount of time students reported practicing per week, a practice factor was created by multiplying the reported number of days practiced per week by the reported number of minutes practiced per day. In some cases, student participants indicated a range of time practiced per day (i.e., 10–30 minutes). In those instances, the smaller number was utilized to create a conservative average estimate of time practiced per week (see Table 2 in the Supplementary Material online).
All seven subscales of the MPMS were significantly correlated (p < .001) with the average number of minutes students reported practicing per week. Furthermore, the amount of weekly practice time was significantly positively correlated with six of the seven subscales; only the Amotivation subscale was negatively correlated with practice time. All correlations were weak with an r of .37 or less.
Differences in self-determination by grade level, gender, instrument, and private lesson study
Research question three asked if there were differences in students’ levels of self-determination for practicing their instrument by their grade level, gender, instrument, or whether or not they engaged in private lesson study. To determine this, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was calculated. Independent variables in the MANOVA were (a) grade level, (b) gender, (c) instrument, and (d) private lesson study, while the MANOVA used the seven MPMS subscales as the dependent variables.
Differences in self-determination by grade level
A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the effect of grade level (fifth or eighth grade) on the seven dependent variables – the MPMS subscales. Significant differences were found by grade level on the dependent measures, Wilks’ Λ = .84, F(7, 788) = 21.98, p < .01. The multivariate η2 based on Wilks’ Λ was strong, .06. The means and the standard deviations of the dependent variables for each grade level are available as Table 3 in the online Supplementary Material.
Analyses of variances (ANOVAs) on the dependent variables were conducted as follow-up tests to the MANOVA. Using the Bonferroni correction, each ANOVA was tested at the .025 level. The ANOVAs on the Intrinsic Motivation—To Know, F(1, 794) = 127.88, p < .01, η2 = .02; Intrinsic Motivation—To Accomplish, F(1, 794) = 49.41, p < .01, η2 < .01; Intrinsic Motivation—To Experience Stimulation, F(1, 794) = 63.40, p < .01, η2 = .02; Extrinsic Motivation—Identified, F(1, 794) = 6.72, p = .01, η2 < .001; Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected, F(1, 794) = 32.40, p < .01, η2 < .01; and Amotivation, F(1, 794) = 41.62, p < .01, η2 = .02, subscales were significant. The ANOVA was non-significant for the Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation, F(1, 794) = 1.18, p = .28, η2 < .001, subscale. For five of the six significant ANOVAs (Intrinsic Motivation—To Know, Intrinsic Motivation—To Accomplish, Intrinsic Motivation—To Experience Stimulation, Extrinsic Motivation—Identified, and Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected), fifth grade student responses were significantly higher than those of the eighth grade students. For the Amotivation subscale, eighth grade student responses were significantly higher than those of the fifth graders.
Differences in self-determination by gender
A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the effect of gender on the seven dependent variables. Significant differences were found by gender on the dependent measures, Wilks’ Λ = .96, F(7, 788) = 4.25, p < .01. The multivariate η2 based on Wilks’ Λ was strong, .03. For this analysis, fifth and eighth grade students were combined. See Table 4 in the Supplementary Material online for the means and the standard deviations of the dependent variables for gender.
Analyses of variances (ANOVA) on each dependent variable were conducted as follow-up tests to the MANOVA. Using the Bonferroni correction, each ANOVA was tested at the .025 level. The ANOVA was only significant on the Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation, F(1, 794) = 13.03, p < .01, η2 = .01, subscale. Male responses were significantly higher than those of females.
Differences in self-determination by instrument
A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the effect of instrument family (woodwind, n = 427; brass, n = 301; percussion, n = 68) on the seven dependent variables. Significant differences were found by instrument on the dependent measures, Wilks’ Λ = .89, F(14, 1570) = 6.65, p < .01. The multivariate η2 based on Wilks’ Λ was strong, .02. Table 5 in the Supplementary Material online contains the means and the standard deviations of the dependent variables for each instrument family.
Analyses of variances (ANOVA) on each dependent variable were conducted as follow-up tests to the MANOVA. Using the Bonferroni correction, each ANOVA was tested at the .025 level. The ANOVA was significant on the Intrinsic Motivation—To Know, F(2, 791) = 10.78, p < .001, η2 = .01; Intrinsic Motivation—To Experience Stimulation, F(2, 791) = 5.82, p < .01, η2 < .01; Extrinsic Motivation—Identified, F(2, 791) = 3.89, p = .02, η2 = .01; Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected, F(2, 791) = 5.06, p < .01, η2 = .01; and Amotivation, F(2, 791) = 17.74, p < .001, η2 = .01, subscales. The ANOVA was non-significant for the Intrinsic Motivation—To Accomplish, F(2, 791) = 4.02, p = .08, η2 = .01, and Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation, F(2, 791) = 2.02, p = .13, η2 < .01, subscales. Tukey HSD post-hoc tests were conducted on the significant ANOVAs to determine the location of the significant differences.
Differences in self-determination by private lesson study
A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to determine the effect of private lesson study (yes/no) on the seven dependent variables. Significant differences were found by private lesson study on the dependent measures, Wilks’ Λ = .97, F(7, 785) = 3.80, p < .01. The multivariate η2 based on Wilks’ Λ was strong, .05. Table 6 in the online Supplementary Material contains the means and the standard deviations of the dependent variables for private lesson study.
Analyses of variances (ANOVA) on each dependent variable were conducted as follow-up tests to the MANOVA. Using the Bonferroni correction, each ANOVA was tested at the .025 level. The ANOVA was significant on the Intrinsic Motivation—To Know, F(1, 791) = 7.70, p < .01, η2 = .03; and Amotivation, F(1,791) = 14.72, p < .01, η2 = .03, subscales. For the Intrinsic Motivation—To Know subscale, responses from students engaging in private lesson study were significantly higher than those who did not engage in private lesson study, while responses from students who did not engage in private lesson study were significantly higher than those who did study privately for Amotivation.
Post-hoc MPMS reliability analysis
Following data collection, a post-hoc internal consistency reliability analysis (Cronbach’s alpha) was performed on the MPMS subscales using the student responses from the study (see Table 2). Internal consistency reliability of the researcher-modified MPMS was robust (α > .7) on six of the seven MPMS subscales. While all seven subscales of the MPMS ranged from α = .68–.81 indicating a strong degree of confidence in the results obtained, only the Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation subscale displayed moderately strong reliability (α = .68).
Reliability coefficients of MPMS subscales.
A post-hoc reliability analysis indicated strong reliability (α > .7) on six of the seven MPMS subscales. Only the Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation subscale was moderately strong with an r of .68. Therefore, a strong degree of confidence could be placed in the results obtained from the MPMS.
Construct validity analysis of the MPMS
A secondary purpose of this study was to validate a researcher-modified survey instrument for use with middle school band students, using self-determination theory as a theoretical lens. In order to test the construct validity of the MPMS, the 28 questions of the MPMS relating to motivational constructs associated with SDT were factor analyzed using principal component analysis with varimax (orthogonal) rotation. The results of the orthogonal rotation of the solution are displayed in Table 7 in the online Supplementary Material. When loadings of less than 0.30 were excluded, the analysis yielded a five-factor solution with a simple structure. The five factors explained 59.341% of the variance for the entire set of variables. Factor 1 was labeled Intrinsic Motivation and encompassed all three of the Intrinsic Motivation subscales from the MPMS (To Know, To Accomplish, To Experience Stimulation). The first factor explained 32.328% of the variance. Factor 2 was labeled Amotivation, as it most closely aligned with this subscale from the MPMS. The variance explained by this factor was 10.007%. Factor 3 aligned with the Extrinsic Motivation—Introjected subscale, explaining 5.626% of the variance, while Factor 4 aligned with the Extrinsic Motivation—Identified subscale of the MPMS explaining 4.889% of the variance, and Factor 5 was labeled Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation explaining 1.034% of the variance.
The communalities of the variables included are moderate to strong ranging from .474 to .776. However, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (.906) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (χ2(378) = 9891.49, p < .001) both indicate that the set of variables are closely related and, therefore, appropriate for factor analysis. Data calculated from these analyses added confidence in the construct validity of the MPMS.
Discussion
Few studies specifically examine the motivation of the middle school band student – a student inundated by fluid psychological, behavioral, and social-cognitive change (Asmus, 1986; Miksza, 2006; Ormrod, 2012). It would appear that value judgments regarding the importance of activities begin to shift during the middle school years as students situate themselves for the future. This study attempted to fill a void in the research by providing a descriptive profile of middle school band students’ motivation to practice utilizing self-determination theory as a theoretical lens. To this end, this study also sought to establish and justify a researcher-adapted survey instrument as reliable and valid for future use in the music community.
Self-determination for practicing
Utilizing the principles of the self-determination theory continuum, participants’ levels of agreement with items on the MPMS tended toward intrinsic attitudes and beliefs toward instrumental music practice. Middle school students appeared to desire to learn more about their instrument, accomplish a task successfully, and experience the positive stimulation of music, as the three Intrinsic Motivation subscales were rated higher than the three Extrinsic and Amotivation subscales. This bodes well for music educators, as middle school students appear to prefer practicing their instrument for reasons that are intrinsic rather than because of external pressure or rewards. It is important to note that this study did not discuss the use of a practice log requirement with students. As noted by Eccles, Wigfield, Harold, and Blumenfeld (1993), strong intrinsic motivation could lead to increased persistence, commitment, and involvement.
Students rated the extrinsic motivation subscales lower than intrinsic motivation subscales. Deci, Koestner, and Ryan (2001) had suggested that rewards might, under certain conditions, undermine motivation, and decrease curiosity, interest, and persistence in learning activities. Moreover, this undermining effect appears to be significantly greater for children – the population examined in the present study – than for older students (Deci et al., 2001). These studies suggest that rewards may be experienced as controlling, resulting in decreased motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Weinstein, 2009). In sum, it would appear to be important to establish intrinsic motivational behaviors as early as possible in the music student’s life eliminating as many extrinsic motivators as possible, thereby leaving room for music study to be associated with intrinsic motivational processes.
Self-determination, years of experience, and amount of time spent practicing
Simply being intrinsically or extrinsically motivated may not be the only factor contributing to the time students spend in the practice room honing their abilities. Results of the study indicate that the relationships between six of the seven MPMS subscales and years of experience were statistically significant. Only the Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation subscale was found to be non-significant. While the correlations between the MPMS subscales and years of experience were weak and should be considered with caution, the results do align with other researchers’ findings. For instance, Austin and Berg (2006) suggested that the longer that a student played an instrument, the less the student experienced motivation to practice. It appears that regardless of the type of motivation (intrinsic or extrinsic), the longer participants in this study had played their instrument, the less motivated to practice they tended to be. Beginning students may find that the initial excitement of learning a new skill (competence), belonging in a group (relatedness), or freedom of choice (autonomy) may decrease as they continue musical study. This is of particular concern for music educators who are hoping to inspire lifelong instrumental music learning behaviors in their students.
The second research question also examined the relationship between self-determination and the amount of time spent practicing. The results of this study indicate that students appeared to report the most time practicing when desiring to experience music’s stimulating effects, when they experienced the curiosity of learning more about music or their instrument, or when they felt that someone else thought it was important that they practice. To this end, students in the study appeared to spend more time in the practice room to fulfill emotional, rather than intellectual, results from practice. In a world of academic and cognitive assessments, students may find an emotional release in the creativity of music making through practice. Finding ways to connect music with students’ emotions through the creation of aesthetic experiences, providing resources to aid the student in exploring new skills through extension activities, and, simply, promoting the positive benefits of practice may help to establish conditions of improved practice.
Levels of self-determination by grade level, gender, instrument, and private lesson study
Human motivation may be affected by a number of internal or external factors. Some of these factors may be based upon biological or genetic conditions, while others may be the result of upbringing or experience. The third research question sought to determine if grade level, gender, instrument, or private lesson study might impact student motivation to practice. Significant differences in self-determination to practice were found by grade level for all of the subscales with the exception of the Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation subscale. In all instances, fifth grade students rated each subscale significantly higher than did their eighth grade counterparts. This finding aligns with the results from the data analysis related to research question two, which indicated that students experienced less motivation to practice as they approach the eighth grade. Other researchers have reported similar findings. Anderman and Maehr (1994) found that motivation to persist decreased between the sixth and seventh grade. Similarly, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) noted that the connection between growth and enjoyment tends to diminish over time. As eighth grade students appear to experience greater amotivation than fifth grade students, this may indicate that persistence and motivation to practice tend to decrease over time. A special emphasis needs to be placed on establishing intrinsic motivation to practice early in the student’s music education. Offering autonomy-supporting activities, such as a variety of music from which to choose for practice, the personal selection of rehearsal strategies, and providing additional age-appropriate pedagogical resources for enrichment or remediation, may assist in establishing intrinsic motivation at an early age, which may continue through the student’s musical career.
Calculation of a one-way MANOVA with gender as the independent variable found significant differences for only one subscale (Extrinsic Motivation—External Regulation). In middle school, it is plausible that male students are more likely to respond to motivators that are external to the self than their female peers. These findings may be similar to Hallam’s (1983) research, which found that female musicians are more intrinsically motivated to practice than their male counterparts. According to Hallam, male students tend to derive their motivation to practice from their peers. It would, therefore, be imperative to create an environment that acknowledges the different ways in which male and female middle school students may be motivated to practice, realizing that some students may be inherently motivated to practice their instruments while others may glean their motivation from their social interactions with other band members.
Students who played different instruments also demonstrated different levels of self-determination to practice, with statistically significant differences observed for five of the MPMS subscales by instrument. Analysis revealed that there were significant differences between woodwind and percussion players and brass and percussion players on the Intrinsic Motivation—To Know subscale. This may indicate that woodwind and brass players enjoy practicing to learn more about their instruments than do their percussion counterparts, perhaps suggesting that percussionists feel they know enough about their instruments. Recognizing that students choose instruments based on different expectations or personality types may help educators to foster conditions for improved practice routines.
Private lesson study also appears to be a factor in student motivation to practice. Perhaps unsurprising to the music educator, students practiced to learn more about their instrument and music in general if they took private lessons. Like the other findings presented in this study, it would seem that students are most highly motivated to engage in practice to learn more about their instruments or music and, thus, may seek other growth opportunities including, but not limited to, private instruction. Additionally, it is possible that interactions with the private lesson teacher or the one-on-one nature of the private lesson experience may establish conditions for greater intrinsic motivation to practice.
Do students take lessons to learn more about their instrument or music, or does the private lesson experience inspire a desire to want to learn more about the instrument or music? In either situation, a one-on-one learning environment may be ideal and necessary to meet some students’ psychological needs and increase self-determination for practice. Creating “pull-out” opportunities in a separate space during class time, providing peer practice time, and offering personalized instruction either from a professional or a more experienced high school musician may increase student intrinsic motivation to practice.
While the study sample is diverse and representative of several geographic regions and socio-economic conditions from the state of Ohio, United States, students from schools in different regions or socio-economic conditions may exhibit different characteristics and motivation to practice. To the extent that the student participants in the study are similar to the students who did not participate, the results of this study should be transferable. Further administrations of the MPMS may offer additional insights into various aspects of student practice.
The MPMS survey instrument should continue to be refined and administered to additional middle school settings to gauge large-scale generalizability of the middle school instrumental music population. Moreover, this study could be replicated to other settings, ensembles, and age levels. As this study has already substantiated, responses to the MPMS appear to change throughout one’s life, particularly as an individual ages.
The current study fills a void in the extant literature by examining middle school students’ self-determination to practice utilizing a researcher-adapted survey instrument. When the students in this study engaged in practice, they tended to be more intrinsically motivated to do so. Fostering the conditions for intrinsic motivation to practice may take many forms. Teachers and parents could create autonomous learning environments that encourage students to learn more about their instrument and the language of music. Likewise, affording students the opportunity, through goal-directed practice, to experience a feeling of growth and accomplishment may inspire motivation to practice, as may performance opportunities in a variety of settings. Creating a personal audio or video portfolio of performances may also aid in the feeling of accomplishment and provide a growth-oriented outlook. Equipped with a useful and applicable theoretical foundation on which to base educational decisions, teachers at all grade levels may be better able to make informed pedagogical decisions.
Footnotes
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Notes
References
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