The Myth of the Peaceful Atom

C.I. Barnard et al., A Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy, U.S. Department of State, 2498, Washington, D. C., U.S. Government Printing Office, March 16, 1946.

See Victor Gilinsky , Plutonium, Proliferation and Policy (remarks at MIT, November 1, 1976), Washington D.C., U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Release S-14-76.

This early period in the internationalisation of nuclear power is incisively analysed by Albert Wohlstetter , " Spreading the Bomb Without Quite Breaking the Rules," Foreign Policy, No. 25, Winter 1976-77, pp. 88-96, 145-179.

For a concise review of the history of safeguards, see Brian Johnson , Whose Power to Choose? International Institutions and the Control of Nuclear Energy (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1977). For a more detailed account, see Nuclear Weapons Proliferation and the International Atomic Energy Agency , Analytic Report to the U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations, March 1976; and Assessment of U.S. and International Controls over the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, Report to Congress of the Comptroller-General of the U.S. September 1976 (ID-76-60).

Statute of the IAEA, Article II.

For a very thorough and objective examination of the weaknesses of the NPT system, see Ranger Uranium Environmental Enquiry First Report (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing service, 1976), ch. 13.

Nuclear News , World List of Nuclear Power s, February 1976.

See OECD-NEA/IAEA, Uranium: Resources, Production and Demand, 1975; and Edward J. Hanrahan (U.S. ERDA), Demand for Uranium and Separative Work, Paper given at Atomic Industrial Forum, Fuel Cycle Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, March 1976. It is worth noting that these estimates are significantly lower than those projected a few years earlier. See, for example, OECD, Energy Prospects to 1985, 1974.

Frank Barnaby , " Diversion of Plutonium and Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons," in J. Rotblat (ed.), Nuclear Reactors: To Breed or not to Breed (London: Taylor & Francis Ltd., 1977), p. 90. See also A. Wohlstetter , " Spreading the Bomb Without Quite Breaking the Rules," pp. 160-162.

Frank Barnaby , " Diversion of Plutonium and Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons," p. 89.

Market Survey for Nuclear Power in Developing Countries, IAEA, Vienna 1974, p. 29.

See Arms Control Report, 15th Annual Report to the Congress , U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, July 1976, pp. 55-6.

See William Van Cleave , " Nuclear Technology and Weapons," in Robert M. Lawrence & Joel Larus (eds.), Nuclear Proliferation: Phase 11 (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas , 1974).

Frank Barnaby , " Preventing the Spread of Nuclear Weapons ," New Scientist, May 1, 1975, p. 243.

For a useful survey, see John Maddox , Prospects for Nuclear Proliferation, Adelphi Papers, No. 113 (London: The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1975).

The Plutonium Plant, Government of India, Atomic Energy Commission, 1965, pp. 6 and 8.

For a much fuller discussion of the intentions and capabilities of the various candidates for the nuclear club, see William Epstein , " The Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons," Scientific American, Vol. 232, No. 4, April 1975 , pp. 18-33.

See Walter Patterson , " Exporting Armageddon," New Statesman, August 27, 1976.

Victor Gilinsky , Plutonium, Proliferation and Policy, p. 5.

See Keith Suter , "The 1975 Review Conference of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty," Australian Outlook, Vol. 30, No. 2, August 1976 , pp. 322-340. Also " Gloom Ends Conference on Nuclear Proliferation," The Times, May 31, 1975; Alan Geyer , "The Nuclear Question Explodes," Worldview (U.S.), September 1975, pp. 27-32.

L. Douglas De Nike, "Radioactive Malevolence," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. XXX, No. 2, February 1974.

Congressional Record, Senate, April 30, 1974, S6621-30.

Report to the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, Protecting Special Nuclear Materials in Transit: Improvements Made and Existing Problems, B-164105.

For a discussion of the commercial rivalry between the United States and Western Europe in nuclear exports, see Jean Klein , " Ventes d'armes et d'equipements nucléaires: les politiques des États Unis et des pays d'Europe occidentale depuis la guerre d'octobre 1973," Politique étrangère , 40e année, No. 6, 1975, pp. 603-620.

Several studies were commissioned by Congress, particularly on the question of safeguards. The following are of considerable interest: Peaceful Nuclear Exports and Weapons Proliferation: A Compendium, Committee on Government Operations, U.S. Senate, U.S. Government Printing Office, April 1975; Facts on Nuclear Proliferation, Handbook prepared for the U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations, December 1975; Nuclear Weapons Proliferation and the International Atomic Energy Agency, Analytic Report to the U.S. Senate Committee on Government Operations, March 1976; Assessment of U.S. and International Controls Over the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, Report to Congress of the Comptroller General of the U.S., September 1976.

The Nuclear Suppliers Groups, which was created in 1975, originally comprised the seven major nuclear exporting nations-the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, France, West Germany, Canada and Japan-but its membership was expanded to 14 and now includes all the significant nuclear exporters except South Africa.

Remarks of the President on Nuclear Energy Policy, Office of the White House Press Secretary, April 7, 1977.

A report prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency and declassified by the White House claimed that world oil demand would exceed supply in the 1980s, and that the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe would require a minimum of 3'5 million barrels per day of imported oil by 1985 (International Herald Tribune, April 20, 1977, p. 3). See also Nuclear Power: Issues and Choices, Report of the Nuclear Energy Policy Study Group, Cambridge, Mass., Ballinger Publishing Company, 1977; Energy: Global Prospects 1985-2000, Report of the Workshop on Alternative Energy Strategies, McGraw-Hill, 1977.

National Energy Policy Principles, Strategies and Goals, White House Fact Sheet on Energy Policy, reprinted in The Energy Daily, Vol. 5, No. 79, April 22, 977, pp. 9-10.

David Fishlock , "A Closer Look at U.S. Nuclear Policy," The Financial Times, May 3, 1977, p. 21.

See Editorial, New York Times, June 17, 1977 .

The proposal by British Nuclear Fuels Ltd., currently the subject of a public enquiry, to build a reprocessing plant able to treat an annual 1,200 tons of nuclear fuel, is based on the expectation that Japanese electricity companies will finance a large part of the capital cost of the plant. It is estimated that the Japanese contract together with other smaller but similar contracts' under negotiation with several other countries would be worth some £600 million over 10 years.

International Herald Tribune, June 2, 1977, p. 4.

International Herald Tribune, June 18-19, p. 1; The Financial Times, June 30, 1977, p. 35.

The Energy Daily, Vol. 5, No. 101, May 24, 1977, p. 3.

See Amory B. Lovins , Soft Energy Paths: Toward a Durable Peace (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballenger Publishing Company (forthcoming publication)).

Ranger Uranium Environmental Enquiry, First Report, pp. 116-117.

A. Wohlstetter , " Spreading the Bomb Without Quite Breaking the Rules," pp. 158-159.

Pat Coyne , "Why the Nuclear Power Programme Must Be Stopped ," Undercurrents, No. 9, January-February 1975, p. 27.

International Herald Tribune, May 7-8, 1977 , p. 1.

See "Hit Man Tells How Israel Got Uranium Shipment," The Observer, May 8, 1977, p. 3; also " The Mystery Men Behind the Great Uranium Hijacking," The Sunday Times, May 8, 1977, p. 4.

International Herald Tribune, May 5, 1977, p. 5.

See Mining Annual Review, 1977, p. 92-94; The Australian Mines Handbook 1976-77, p. 61.