Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) are increasingly recognized as a strategy to reduce environmental impacts in urban transport. This study, conducted in 2024 in Arusha City, Tanzania, examines factors influencing EV adoption, focusing on charging infrastructure, financial constraints, and socio-economic considerations. A mixed-methods design was applied, incorporating 32 EV users, 32 internal combustion engine vehicle users, and representatives from key institutions, selected through stratified random sampling. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and documentary reviews. Analysis included descriptive statistics and corrected principal component analysis on standardized continuous variables, which identified charging infrastructure and financial constraints as the primary factors influencing adoption, together explaining 63% of variance. Respondents reported high satisfaction with private and workplace charging but noted limited public stations, with only two publicly accessible points in the city. Financial barriers were pronounced, as 42% of participants cited high purchase costs as a deterrent, particularly affecting lower-income groups. Despite these constraints, interest in EV adoption was strong among higher-income respondents and tourism operators. The findings provide evidence-based insights into the practical challenges and opportunities for EV integration, supporting policy development, infrastructure planning, and targeted incentives to promote sustainable mobility in similar urban contexts. Limitations include the cross-sectional design and focus on tourism-sector users, which may influence generalizability.
Keywords
Introduction
The evolution of electric vehicle (EV) technology can be traced back to the early 19th century, with a prototype introduced in 1834 ( 1 ). Despite early promise, EV development stagnated during the 20th century as internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles dominated the automotive industry, bolstered by technological advancements and improvements in fuel infrastructure ( 2 , 3 ). However, in the 21st century, EVs have re-emerged as viable alternatives to ICE vehicles, largely because of heightened environmental awareness, advances in battery technologies, and global shifts toward more sustainable transportation systems ( 4 – 6 ).
EV adoption has accelerated in recent decades, particularly in regions that have implemented supportive policies and incentives aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and urban pollution ( 3 ). For example, countries such as Norway have advanced EV adoption by offering tax exemptions, promoting public awareness, and investing in charging infrastructure ( 7 – 9 ). Technological improvements, including those related to lithium-ion batteries, have enhanced energy density and reduced costs, improving the feasibility of EV ownership ( 2 , 10 , 11 ). At the same time, companies such as Tesla have expanded consumer interest through the development of high-performance EVs with broader market appeal ( 12 – 15 ). As a result, national efforts in countries such as China and several European nations have produced noticeable growth in electric mobility, driven by policy frameworks, investment in infrastructure, and public demand for cleaner transport options ( 16 ).
While global trends show growing momentum, the adoption of electric mobility in Africa has developed at a slower pace. Factors such as the rising cost of petroleum-based fuels and the vulnerability associated with dependence on fuel imports have prompted some African nations to pursue alternatives. Countries, including South Africa, have piloted electric public transport systems and urban mobility initiatives involving EVs ( 17 ). Similarly, Kenya and Nigeria have begun to implement policies and infrastructure designed to facilitate EV adoption, such as regulatory frameworks and public charging stations ( 18 , 19 ).
Tanzania is beginning to emerge within this regional transition. Although initial efforts were limited, growing economic pressures and environmental considerations have led to a more active exploration of electric mobility. Urban centres such as Dar es Salaam have introduced electric buses and are working to establish basic charging infrastructure ( 20 ). However, despite these developments, the expansion of EV usage faces several constraints. Infrastructure remains underdeveloped, particularly for charging facilities, maintenance support, and supply chains ( 17 ). These limitations are compounded by public concerns over affordability, vehicle performance, and the practicality of transitioning from ICE vehicles ( 21 , 22 ). Limited infrastructure and persistent perceptions of risk create hesitation among consumers and pose challenges to policy implementation ( 23 ). Tanzania’s transport system, especially in urban contexts such as Arusha City, is shaped by infrastructure originally designed to accommodate ICE vehicles. Integrating EVs into this framework raises important questions about the compatibility of current systems with emerging technologies. The lack of sufficient charging infrastructure, along with policy and regulatory gaps, may constrain the potential benefits associated with EVs, such as reduced emissions and improved energy efficiency ( 24 – 26 ).
In Arusha City, the adoption of electric mobility remains in its infancy. Arusha does not operate electric buses or e-motorcycles for public transport. The few EVs present are primarily owned and operated by private entities within the tourism industry, which reflects the city’s status as a tourism-based urban centre in Tanzania. This ownership pattern means that EV usage is concentrated within safari companies and high-end lodges that employ EVs for eco-tourism and wildlife viewing activities, rather than for general urban commuting. Consequently, the broader transport fleet in Arusha remains dominated by ICE vehicles, including minibuses (dala-dalas), taxis, and motorcycles (bodabodas) that rely entirely on fossil fuels ( 27 ). This composition limits opportunities for the public to experience or access electric mobility directly, thereby affecting public awareness, acceptance, and perceived feasibility of EV adoption in the city.
The national policy environment is evolving but remains at an early stage in addressing the specific requirements of regional cities such as Arusha. While Tanzania’s environmental and energy policies encourage cleaner technologies and renewable energy integration, explicit directives or incentives for EV adoption are limited ( 26 , 28 ). The absence of coordinated local initiatives, dedicated charging infrastructure, and fiscal incentives constrains the expansion of EV ownership beyond the tourism sector. Strengthening the local EV ecosystem will depend on aligning policy priorities with infrastructural development and stakeholder engagement across both public and private domains.
Given this context, the present study situates its analysis within Arusha’s unique tourism-driven setting, acknowledging that current EV users predominantly represent the private tourism sector. This focus allows an exploration of how private-sector innovation in sustainable mobility can inform broader urban transport planning. While the sample reflects a specific segment of the city’s transport system, the study discusses implications for potential expansion into other mobility domains—such as public transport, logistics, and informal mobility—under the prevailing infrastructural and policy conditions.
This study investigates the integration of EV technology within Arusha City’s urban transport system. It assesses existing infrastructure, key barriers to adoption, and public perceptions of electric mobility. The analysis examines how current planning practices and policies align with the conditions necessary for EV uptake. The study draws on relevant literature to link emerging transport technologies with Arusha’s infrastructural, economic, and social context. The findings aim to guide infrastructure planning, inform policy adjustments, and support progress toward cleaner, more resilient urban transport.
Methodology
This study employs a mixed-methods research design to examine the integration of EV technology into Arusha’s urban transport system. The approach integrates both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis to assess the readiness of infrastructure, policy frameworks, and public perception of electric mobility in the city. The methodology is structured around three components: study area context, data collection procedures, and analytical techniques.
Study Area
Arusha City, situated in northern Tanzania at coordinates 3.3869° S and 36.7022° E, serves as the case study for this research (Figure 1). As a growing urban hub in the East African region, Arusha is strategically located near major tourist destinations such as Mount Meru, Mount Kilimanjaro, and several national parks. Rapid urbanization, coupled with rising domestic migration and international tourism, has placed increasing pressure on the city’s transport infrastructure.
Illustration showing the study area.
The local transportation system comprises a combination of formal and informal modes, including public minibuses, private cars, motorcycles (bodabodas), and pedestrian movement. Minibuses dominate public commuting, serving a majority of the population. However, traffic congestion, air quality deterioration, and road safety concerns have become increasingly prevalent, partly driven by the growing number of ICE vehicles. These challenges, alongside environmental and energy security concerns, have prompted interest in alternative transport solutions, such as EVs.
Currently, Arusha’s EV infrastructure remains underdeveloped, with limited charging stations and minimal institutional policy support. Nevertheless, emerging interest from both the private sector and policy actors reflects a growing recognition of the potential benefits of EVs in addressing energy dependency, environmental degradation, and urban mobility inefficiencies. This study specifically focused on light-duty EVs used primarily within the tourism sector, as Arusha does not currently operate electric two-wheel motorcycles or e-buses. This research investigates the opportunities and constraints associated with integrating EVs into this evolving urban transport context.
Data Collection
Data were collected through a combination of primary and secondary sources. Primary data collection incorporated both qualitative and quantitative methods, including interviews, structured questionnaires, and field observations. These instruments were designed to capture diverse perspectives from individual users and institutional actors engaged in electric mobility.
A stratified random sampling technique was employed to select participants. The study population was divided into three strata: EV owners, users of ICE vehicles, and institutional stakeholders. Random samples were drawn from each subgroup to ensure demographic and experiential representation. The sample included 32 EV owners and drivers, 32 users of ICE vehicles, and representatives from key institutions, including TANROADS, E-Motion Africa Ltd., BRAINTECH GmbH, and TANAPA. These institutions play a role in regulating, planning infrastructure, and promoting electric mobility in Tanzania. The sample size of approximately 64 participants aligns with established practices in experience-based and expert-oriented studies, as reflected in recent literature ( 10 , 11 ). This ensures methodological soundness and credibility within comparable research frameworks.
Semi-structured interviews with EV and ICE vehicle users focused on individual experiences, perceptions of EV performance, and challenges related to access and affordability. Institutional interviews gathered perspectives on policy gaps, infrastructure needs, and the regulatory environment. In addition, structured questionnaires were distributed to EV users to collect quantitative data on perceived benefits, infrastructure availability, and the impact of ownership on mobility patterns. Documentary reviews of policy frameworks, technical reports, and industry publications provided secondary data, offering context for the primary findings.
Each dataset and analytical output were mapped to the specific subset of respondents used in that analysis to enhance clarity and reproducibility. Differences in sample sizes across tables or analyses reflect cases where respondents did not complete all survey items or where data were excluded because of missing responses. Response rates and inclusion criteria were documented in accordance with the STROBE guidelines for observational studies. Of the 64 participants initially approached, 58 provided complete responses, representing a 90.6% response rate. Partial responses were excluded from specific analyses where data were incomplete. These criteria ensured transparency, consistency, and reproducibility of the study’s findings.
Ethical considerations were fully observed in the conduct of this study. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from all respondents before data collection. Respondents were informed about the study’s purpose, the confidentiality of their responses, and their right to withdraw at any point. All data were anonymized before analysis. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ardhi University Research Ethics Committee under approval number ARU/REC/2024/EVT-072.
Data Analysis and Presentation
Data were analyzed using Past 4.03 exe software, applying both univariate and multivariate statistical methods to identify relationships and factors influencing EV adoption. Descriptive statistics were used in the univariate analysis to summarize continuous variables such as user satisfaction, accessibility of infrastructure, and perceptions of cost efficiency.
The analysis included measures of central tendency and dispersion, such as means, medians, coefficients of variation (CV), skewness, and kurtosis. The mean provided an average response across variables, including infrastructure adequacy and satisfaction, while the median was used to evaluate central values in skewed data. Skewness indicated the direction and degree of asymmetry in responses, and kurtosis assessed the sharpness of data distribution and the presence of outliers, particularly in variables related to the reliability and affordability of EVs.
For multivariate analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to continuous, standardized variables derived from Likert-scale responses. The variables represented perceptions of policy awareness, infrastructure adequacy, affordability, and environmental benefits. Standardization ensured comparability across variables with differing measurement scales. Before PCA was conducted, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett’s test of sphericity were performed to assess sampling adequacy and data suitability, with KMO values above 0.5 and a significant Bartlett test confirming the appropriateness of PCA. A scree plot guided the selection of retained components, and varimax rotation was applied to improve interpretability of the factor structure, as recommended in Jolliffe and Cadima ( 29 ). The PCA results were harmonized across the manuscript to maintain consistency. These components represented the most influential factors in EV adoption—namely, policy support, infrastructure readiness, and economic feasibility.
In addition to PCA, inferential analyses were conducted to compare perceptions between EV and ICE users. Grouping variables were explicitly defined based on vehicle ownership category. Parametric tests were applied after confirming assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variances; where assumptions were not met, non-parametric alternatives were used. Effect sizes and confidence intervals were reported to the aid interpretation of group differences.
Findings from both qualitative and quantitative analyses were organized thematically. The integration of statistical outcomes with stakeholder narratives provided a clearer interpretation of how electric mobility is perceived and practiced in Arusha and the factors that could facilitate or constrain its expansion. Reported charging station information (Arusha–Babati BrainTech and Engutoto Njiro) was based on respondents’ perceptions and interview confirmations rather than independently audited data. This distinction ensures that the findings reflect user-reported experiences consistent with available field observations.
The overall analytical framework aimed to link quantitative results with practical implications for infrastructure development and policy design, enabling translation of statistical findings into actionable insights for promoting EV adoption in Arusha.
Results
State of EV Technology in Arusha City
The results show that the adoption of EV technology in Arusha city, found only in the tourism sector, is steadily increasing, with a total of 110 EVs currently in operation across four key companies (Table 1). Among these, E-Motion Africa Ltd leads with 50 EVs, representing 45.5% of the total fleet. This makes E-Motion the largest adopter of EV technology in the region. The company’s significant share highlights its central role in promoting the shift to electric mobility, not just in Arusha but also in neighbouring East African countries such as Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and South Africa. E-Motion’s fleet is particularly concentrated in the tourism sector, with most of its vehicles used for safari and park tours, which are heavily dependent on eco-friendly transportation solutions.
Type of Tourism-Based Electric Vehicles Owned by Companies in Arusha City
Following E-Motion, Kibo Guides (T) Ltd owns 40 EVs, accounting for 36.4% of the total fleet. This makes Kibo Guides the second-largest operator of EVs in Arusha. The company’s decision to invest heavily in EVs underscores its commitment to sustainable tourism, as demand grows for greener alternatives in the travel industry. Kibo Guides’ fleet primarily services eco-tourism activities, further contributing to the region’s focus on reducing the environmental impact of tourism-related transportation. Miracle Experience Balloon Safari and Mount Kilimanjaro Safari Club each own 10 EVs, making up 9.1% of the fleet each. Though smaller in scale than E-Motion and Kibo Guides, these companies’ adoption of EVs signals a growing interest in clean, sustainable transport options within the tourism sector. Their decision to integrate EVs into their operations highlights a broader industry trend toward reducing carbon emissions and improving the sustainability of transport services.
Infrastructure Support for EVs in Arusha City
The results indicate that the infrastructure supporting EVs in Arusha is at an early stage of development. Interviews with EV users, institutional representatives from TANROADS, and companies involved in the EV sector revealed several constraints, particularly concerning charging accessibility, power reliability, and infrastructural readiness. Although Arusha currently has limited public charging infrastructure, this does not necessarily restrict EV operations, as most EVs in the city are privately owned and operated by tourism companies that maintain their own dedicated charging facilities.
Charging infrastructure remains central to supporting EV operations, functioning similarly to fuel stations for ICE vehicles (Figure 2). The study confirmed the presence of two public charging stations: one along the Arusha–Babati Road operated by BrainTech GmbH, and another at Engutoto on Njiro Road. In addition to these public chargers, all surveyed tourism operators reported the existence of private charging systems within their premises, typically powered through grid connections or solar-assisted installations. These private facilities are mainly used for overnight or off-peak charging, reflecting standard EV fleet management practices.
Location of charging stations for electric vehicles in Arusha city.
Interview data indicated that 62.5% of respondents—primarily drawn from private tourism operators—found the available charging options effective for their operational needs, while 21.9% expressed uncertainty, and 15.6% viewed them as ineffective (Table 2). Respondents who rated the system as effective emphasized that overnight charging within company facilities provides sufficient energy for the next day’s tourism-related trips. This operational pattern reduces reliance on public charging stations, which are mainly used as backup options.
Respondents’ Evaluation of Charging Station Effectiveness and Perception of Charging Infrastructure Availability in Arusha City
The remaining respondents, who expressed concerns, noted that the small number of public stations limits flexibility for longer regional routes beyond typical tourism circuits. However, since most EVs in Arusha are used for short- to medium-distance tourism activities—ranging from 80 to 200 km per day—the available charging solutions are generally adequate for daily operations when combined with private overnight charging.
Therefore, while the number of public charging stations is low, this finding should be interpreted within the context of Arusha’s current EV ecosystem, where charging primarily occurs at private fleet depots or company premises. Respondent perceptions of “limited public charging” reflect situational awareness rather than direct operational barriers. Continued growth in EV adoption, especially beyond the tourism sector, would require additional public infrastructure in the future.
Interviews with TANROADS revealed that approximately 80% of roads under their jurisdiction are in good condition, including both tarmac and gravel surfaces. These routes are generally suitable for all vehicle types, including EVs. However, survey responses showed varying levels of satisfaction with road infrastructure. Among the 32 respondents, 40.6% were fully satisfied, 34.4% were somewhat satisfied, and 25% were dissatisfied (Table 3). This indicates that, while the road network supports EV mobility, some respondents in peripheral areas experience challenges related to accessibility and surface quality.
Respondents’ Satisfaction Levels on Key Infrastructure Components Supporting Electric Vehicles in Arusha City
Power supply reliability emerged as another important factor influencing EV operation in Arusha. Electricity for charging stations is primarily supplied by TANESCO, which is generally dependable. Among respondents, 19% were fully satisfied, 34% somewhat satisfied, and 45% dissatisfied with the stability of the power supply. This distribution reflects ongoing concerns about load shedding and interruptions. Interviews indicated that some EV operators supplement the TANESCO supply with solar panels or generators to maintain consistent charging capacity. These backup systems were viewed as practical solutions for ensuring continuous vehicle operation.
Maintenance services for EVs were found to be adequate but evolving. Insights from HansPaul Automechs Ltd indicated that 45% of maintenance services were rated as effective, while 55% were considered moderate. Interviews confirmed that maintenance primarily involves periodic inspections and software diagnostics, with minimal mechanical servicing compared with ICE vehicles. Battery checks are performed to monitor capacity and functionality, although no major replacements have been reported, given the relatively recent adoption of EVs.
The planning and management of supporting facilities such as charging stations and maintenance centres remain essential to facilitate the growing EV market. Interviews with HansPaul Ltd emphasized that infrastructure planning should prioritize accessibility, coordinated placement, and integration with existing transport systems. Strategic investments in charging stations and fast-charging options are necessary to support demand growth. Without coordinated planning, these facilities risk uneven utilization. A well-maintained and accessible infrastructure framework will enhance the practicality and sustainability of electric mobility in Arusha.
Evaluating the Public Acceptance of EV Technology in Arusha City
The assessment of public acceptance focused on three key indicators: ownership of EVs, awareness of EV technology, and understanding of advanced EV systems. These parameters were derived from responses gathered through interviews and questionnaires targeting individual EV users, institutional representatives, and ICE vehicle users who were familiar with the concept of electric mobility. A total of 14 valid responses were analyzed for this component, drawn from participants who had direct or indirect experience of EVs, primarily within the tourism sector.
Respondents were asked whether they personally owned or used an EV, their level of awareness of EV functionality and benefits, and their familiarity with emerging technologies such as battery management systems and charging infrastructure. The findings show variation in awareness and ownership, reflecting the early stage of electric mobility adoption in Arusha. Table 4 presents the descriptive statistics summarizing these responses.
Descriptive Statistics for Electric Vehicle (EV) Ownership, Awareness Levels, and Understanding of EV Technology in Arusha City
The results indicate that awareness levels are moderate, with respondents showing greater familiarity with general EV concepts than with specific technical aspects. Ownership remains limited, as most EVs in Arusha are operated by tourism companies rather than individual users. The variation in responses (standard deviation = 5.67; CV ≈ 62%) reflects differing degrees of exposure to electric mobility depending on professional roles and access to information. The slight positive skewness (0.21) suggests that most respondents reported lower to moderate awareness, while negative kurtosis (−1.58) indicates a flat distribution with few extreme values. These results suggest that public understanding and adoption of EV technology are still developing. Awareness campaigns, demonstrations, and training could enhance familiarity and confidence in EVs, particularly beyond the tourism sector.
PCA was conducted to explore relationships among variables representing public awareness, ownership, and perceptions of EV technology (Table 5). The analysis aimed to identify key components influencing acceptance of EVs in Arusha. Before conducting PCA, variables were standardized, and the KMO measure (0.63) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p < 0.05) confirmed the suitability of the data for factor analysis, following the approach of Jolliffe and Cadima ( 29 ).
Principal Component Analysis Results for Ownership, Awareness, and Perception of Electric Vehicle (EV) Technology in Arusha City
Note: Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin = 0.63; Bartlett’s test of sphericity: χ2 = 41.56, p < 0.05; rotation method: varimax. Total variance explained: PC1 = 63.4%, PC2 = 21.2%. The numbers in bold present the highest level of contribution to the PC.
The variables included continuous and ordinal data derived from survey responses, such as the number of EVs owned, level of awareness (“not aware,”“somewhat aware,”“very aware”), and perceptions of technology advancement (“moderate,”“advanced,”“very advanced”). Other variables captured opinions on factors influencing EV adoption, such as the “rise in fuel prices” (representing perceived economic pressure to shift from ICE vehicles) and “advancement of transport technology” (reflecting awareness of ongoing modernization in the transport sector).
Two components (PC1 and PC2) were extracted after varimax rotation (Figure 3). PC1 explained 63.4% of the total variance, while PC2 accounted for 21.2%, both meeting acceptable thresholds. The remaining components explained marginal variance and were not retained for interpretation. The eigenvalues (2.54 for PC1 and 0.84 for PC2) confirm the dominance of the first component, representing awareness and ownership, while the second component reflects attitudes toward technology advancement and environmental sustainability.
Scree plot illustrating the eigenvalues of principal components extracted from principal component analysis.
Variables with strong loadings on PC1 included “EV ownership,”“awareness level,” and “perceived fuel price effect,” indicating that individuals who were more aware of EVs and experienced economic pressure from fuel costs were more open to adoption. PC2 loaded strongly on “technology advancement” and “environmental sustainability,” suggesting that respondents who valued innovation and environmental benefits also showed positive attitudes toward EV technology.
The PCA results demonstrate that EV awareness and ownership are primarily driven by exposure to information, energy cost concerns, and the perceived modernity of EV technology. These findings highlight that enhancing public knowledge and linking EV promotion with economic and environmental benefits could increase acceptance in Arusha’s tourism-driven market.
PC1 and PC2 were retained based on the Kaiser criterion (eigenvalue ≥ 1) and the elbow method. The analysis focused on differences in EV ownership, awareness, and adoption of advanced EV technology among respondent groups (Table 6). The groups were defined as EV users (n = 10) and non-EV users (n = 18), based on ownership status and exposure to electric mobility. Additional subgroup comparisons were made according to awareness levels (low, moderate, high) to assess variation in perceptions and adoption readiness.
Statistical Tests: Test for Equal Means and Kruskal-Wallis H Test for Equal Medians for the within a category (group) or across/between categories: Ownership of Electric Vehicles, Technology Adoption, Level of Awareness, and Advanced Technology in Arusha City
Note: The numbers in bold indicate the statistical parameters used for the significance comparison.
Assumption checks confirmed minor deviations from homogeneity of variance, addressed using the Welch and Kruskal–Wallis tests. The test for equal means (F = 15.34, p = 0.0006) indicated statistically significant differences between groups. The total sum of squares (SS = 7174.05) and the permutation test (p = 0.00047) supported these findings. Approximately 50.6 % of total variance was explained by between-group differences, and the effect size (ω 2 = 0.34) reflected a moderate relationship between group membership and EV awareness or ownership.
Violation of variance equality was detected (Levene’s test p = 1.56 × 10−5 for means; p = 2.73 × 10−5 for medians). The Welch F-test (F = 15.34, p = 0.0013) confirmed that mean differences remained significant under unequal variances. The Kruskal–Wallis test (χ2 = 10.34, p = 0.0013) further validated the result through a non-parametric approach. Together, these outcomes indicate that public acceptance and awareness of EV technology vary significantly between ownership and awareness groups.
Discussion
The results highlight a notable adoption of EVs in Arusha, with most vehicles concentrated in the tourism sector. Data collected during interviews in 2024 show that the number of EVs in the city increased between 2020 and 2024 (from 30 to 110), demonstrating a growth trend over time. This pattern reflects global movements where tourism operators integrate sustainable transport solutions, which may be motivated both by environmental concerns and potential operating cost reductions ( 30 , 31 ). Interview responses indicated that cost savings, brand differentiation, and eco-tourism marketing were cited as reasons for adoption, rather than assumed environmental motivation alone.
E-Motion Africa Ltd, based in Tanzania, operates nearly half of the city’s EV fleet, while other local companies such as Kibo Guides (T) Ltd, Miracle Experience Balloon Safari, and Mount Kilimanjaro Safari Club maintain smaller fleets. These findings clarify that EV adoption is primarily driven by local private tourism operators, and not international companies, meaning that economics and operational decisions are largely influenced by the Tanzanian context ( 32 – 34 ).
The study did not find evidence that public infrastructure is a major constraint for these users. Most respondents reported that existing public charging stations meet their operational needs effectively, and private or company-owned chargers are often the preferred and primary method of charging, rather than an interim solution. Relying on private or overnight charging is common and generally more convenient than depending solely on public stations, which would require stopping during the day for shorter, less predictable charging sessions ( 35 , 36 ). Available EV models in Tanzania currently include Nissan Leaf, BMW i3, and several BYD models, with ranges of 80–200 km per charge, suitable for local tourism operations.
Road conditions, while satisfactory for most vehicles, were cited by some respondents as less reliable in remote areas, though EVs are not inherently more sensitive to road quality than ICE vehicles ( 37 , 38 ).
Electricity supply is generally reliable, with few interruptions reported, and costs for electricity charging are lower than those of conventional fuel per kilometer of operation. In comparison, fuel supply and cost for diesel and petrol are subject to price volatility, which can influence operational decisions for transport operators ( 39 , 40 ).
Maintenance for EVs is relatively low, requiring less frequent servicing than ICE vehicles, and battery care is primarily needed for older batteries rather than routine monthly checks. This aligns with existing studies that note lithium-ion batteries have low maintenance requirements ( 41 – 43 ).
Public awareness and adoption remain concentrated in the tourism sector, and the cross-sectional design of this study, combined with the small sample size, limits generalization to other sectors. The findings indicate moderate awareness, but adoption is largely constrained to businesses, rather than individual urban users ( 44 , 45 ).
Current policy frameworks in Tanzania provide limited incentives for EV adoption outside private tourism operations. While global examples such as Norway and South Africa demonstrate that dense charging networks and government support accelerate EV uptake, Tanzania’s policies are less developed and have yet to target barriers specific to local operators. A targeted policy gap analysis is suggested for future research, considering fiscal capacity, regulatory mandates, and institutional responsibilities for EV integration ( 46 – 49 ).
The findings demonstrate that EV adoption in Arusha is primarily driven by the tourism sector and supported by private charging solutions, rather than being constrained by public infrastructure. Challenges such as electricity reliability, road conditions, and maintenance are present but manageable, and adoption outside tourism remains limited. Future research should explore policy interventions, public awareness campaigns, and the expansion of EVs into other urban transport segments.
Conclusion and Recommendations
This study shows that EV adoption in Arusha is largely concentrated in the tourism sector, reflecting early-stage adoption patterns in the city. Public charging infrastructure remains limited, with only two stations reported, while most EV users rely on private or workplace chargers. Power supply is generally stable, though occasional interruptions occur, and maintenance requirements for modern EVs are low compared with ICE vehicles. The road network is generally suitable for EV operation, with minor concerns in some peri-urban areas. Financial constraints and logistical considerations continue to influence adoption, particularly among smaller operators and lower-income groups.
Recommendations focus on expanding charging infrastructure strategically across underserved areas and supporting private charging solutions. Policy interventions could include targeted financial incentives for operators and consumers, along with public awareness initiatives to improve knowledge of EV benefits. Maintenance practices for EVs should continue following standard manufacturer guidelines, without suggesting higher intensity than needed. Policy and planning recommendations are framed with the study’s limitations in mind, including its cross-sectional design, small sample size, and focus on tourism-sector operators. Future research could benchmark Arusha against other African cities at similar adoption stages to identify context-specific opportunities and constraints.
Footnotes
Author Contributions
The author confirms sole responsibility for the following: study conception and design, data collection, analysis and interpretation of results, and preparation of the manuscript.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article:
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process
During the preparation of this work, the author used ChatGPT-OpenAI to improve readability and language. After using this tool/service, the author reviewed and edited the content as needed and takes full responsibility for the content of the publication.
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