Rajendra Chola I (1012–1044 ce ) in South India

Abstract

In South India, the Imperial Cholas reigned between 985 and 1044 ce. Raja Raja Chola I (r. 985–1014 ce) is widely celebrated as a symbol of Tamil pride. However, his son and successor, Rajendra Chola I (r. 1012–1044 ce), is not accorded equal recognition. Notably, it was Rajendra—not Raja Raja—who dispatched two trade missions to China, strengthening maritime diplomacy. Rajendra is often criticised for his military aggression, particularly the Sri Vijayan expedition. Yet this campaign was largely aimed at protecting Chola’s commercial interests and securing maritime trade routes to China. Like his father, Rajendra commemorated victories through grand temple construction. Through sustained patronage of these temples, he integrated diverse social groups into the imperial administrative structure. He also collaborated with influential Tamil merchant guilds and promoted maritime mercantilism in Southeast Asia. Recent inscriptions further suggest his involvement in the spice trade with Arab merchants in the Arabian Sea. Consequently, Rajendra emerged as the only ruler who exercised influence over both coasts of the Indian peninsula. Through northern campaigns into the Gangetic region, he asserted Chola authority across much of the subcontinent, proving himself an exceptional monarch.

Keywords

Raja Raja Chola I Rajendra Chola I temples trade caliph China Southeast Asia

In popular culture, three movies based on the story of the Chola ruler, Raja Raja I (985–1014 ce) have been made to date. All three movies received tremendous public response. No doubt, Raja Raja Chola I is the symbol of Tamil Pride. Surprisingly, Rajendra Chola I (1012–1044 ce), son of Raja Raja I, is not held in the same esteem. He has never been portrayed on celluloid. Even Tamil print media echo the same sentiments for these Tamil kings. Actually, it is a general perception that Rajendra Chola I was completely overshadowed by his illustrious father¹ Raja Raja I. Even in basic history textbooks, Rajendra Chola I is mentioned as a ruthless monarch, who followed a very aggressive foreign policy, and his tenure was a ‘blot in the Chola History of South India’.² Similarly, at a higher level, in Delhi University history textbooks, we have the same story. Coincidentally, Upinder Singh³ in her book has referred to titles exclusively used by Raja Raja I Chola, like Ulakalanda Perumal (the great one who measured the earth) and Kshatriya-shikhamani (crest jewel of the Kshatriyas). She believes⁴ that Raja Raja I sent the first Chola mercantile mission to China in 1015. And, later, his son Rajendra Raja I sent the second trade embassy to China in 1033. But there seems to be some factual error. It is widely known that Raja Raja I appointed Rajendra Chola I as his heir apparent or co-regent in 1012.⁵ Rajendra Chola I became a full-fledged monarch after Raja Raja’s I demise in 1014 (in January–February).⁶^,⁷ Then, how was it possible for Raja Raja I to send the first mission to China in 1015, when he died in January of 1014? Hypothetically speaking, it is quite likely that Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044), out of respect and love for his deceased father, sent his first trade mission to China in the name of his late father Raja Raja. Balram Srivastava⁸ in his book also mentioned that it was Rajendra Chola I (and not Raja Raja I) who sent the first trade mission to China in 1015. Another recent article by James A. Anderson corroborates this fact.⁹ He quotes another scholar, Hartwell,¹⁰ to demonstrate that ‘Rajendra Chōla I sent first mission to China in 1015, and this mission remained in Kaifeng (China), for nearly a year from 15th May 1015 to 10th May 1016, with the actual audience with the emperor dated October 16th to November 5th, 1015’. But, all Indian history books, without any exception, give credit to Raja Raja I, his father, which is very unfair. Both the mercantile embassies to China (in 1015¹¹ and 1033 ce) were sent by Rajendra Chola I.

Unfortunately, Rajendra Chola I is criticised by scholars for his aggressive foreign policy of political aggrandizement. It appears that Rajendra Chola I’s objective behind these political expeditions and their subsequent repercussions are completely ignored. Maybe he has been unduly maligned. Let us examine the details of Rajendra Chola I’s reign as a monarch to get a clear picture.

Only two imperial dynasties, namely the Mauryas and the Guptas, integrated the south or peninsular part with North India during the ancient period. Coincidentally, both the dynasties were from the Gangetic region. Rajendra Chola I is the only South Indian ruler who reversed this power balance. That is, Rajendra Chola I from South India defeated the rulers of Bengal and Kalinga and assumed the title of ‘The Conqueror of Ganges’ and constructed a temple city at Gangaikonda Cholapuram to commemorate his victory.

Consolidation of Empire in the Peninsular India

We all know that Chola rulers had their base in the lower south (Tanjore, Tamil Nadu), where they vanquished their rivals, namely Pandyas (Madurai TN) and Cheras (Kerala). Internally, the upper part of the peninsula was polarised between two remotely related dynasties: the Western Chalukyas (of Kalyani in modern states of Maharashtra and Karnataka) and the Eastern Chalukyas (of Vengi in modern states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh). Both Raja Raja I (daughter Kundavai) and Rajendra Chola I (daughter Angamma) made the latter (Eastern Chalukyas) an ally by marrying their (both the Chola’s) respective daughters to the Eastern Chalukyan kings at different time spans. On the contrary, they adopted a very harsh policy to subjugate the Western Chalukyas.

Chronologically speaking, Rajendra Chola I started his military career (1012–1014) against the Western Chalukyas and the rulers of Sri Lanka and was quite successful in both these expeditions. Next, he quelled the rebellions of his vassals, namely the Cheras and Pandyas. Rajendra Chola I sent an expedition to eastern Kerala¹² (1017) and captured Kudamalai Nadu. In 1018, Rajendra Chola I brought the Maldives and Lakshadweep Islands under his command, followed by another island Sandimaaththivu, the Kavaratti, west of Kerala.¹³ Finally, Rajendra Chola I annihilated the Pandyas of Madurai in 1018 and the Cheras of Kerala¹⁴ in 1019 ce. Rajendra Chola I, in quick sequence, completely demolished Anuradhapura¹⁵ (Sri Lanka) and brought all the above-mentioned regions under his direct control. Rajendra Chola I had also under his command the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula, where the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal, that is, the ‘three waters’, meet.

Conquest of the Gangetic Region

In 1019 ce, Rajendra Chola I had an alliance with the Paramaras of Malwa¹⁶ and the Kalachuris¹⁷ of Tripuri.¹⁸ Subsequently, he led an expedition to the Gangetic region.

He first defeated Indraratha, the Somavamsi ruler¹⁹ of Kalinga. The Chola army eventually reached the Pala kingdom of Bengal, where they defeated Mahipala. The Chola army also defeated the last ruler of the Kamboja Pala dynasty, Dharmapala of Dandabhukti.²⁰^,²¹ In Bengal, Rajendra Chola I’s last target was Govinda Chandra of the Chandra dynasty.²² Finally, to celebrate his victory in the Ganges, Rajendra Chola I constructed a new capital at Gangaikondacholapuram and built Gangaikonda Choleeswarar temple.²³ The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.²⁴ The Chola expedition to the Ganges and, eventually, the control of the coastal regions of the Bay of Bengal immensely benefited the maritime ambition of Rajendra Chola I.

Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia

Initially, Raja Raja Chola I had a cordial relationship with the Srivijaya dynasty in Southeast Asia.²⁵ But, later, Rajendra Chola I reversed his father’s friendly policy and invaded Srivijayan cities.²⁶ Rajendra Chola I’s naval expedition to the Srivijaya dynasty (1025) has intrigued many historians.²⁷ K. A. N. Sastri²⁸ speculates that Rajendra Chola I’s aggression was either against the Srivijayan monopoly, which manifested in ‘creating hurdles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China)’, or it was simply an imperialist expansionist maneuver of Rajendra Chola I in Southeast Asia. Kenneth R. Hall²⁹ believes that the formation of diplomatic alliances among various political powers led to the geopolitical polarisation of Southeast Asia. Rajendra Chola I’s diplomatic/navy alliance with the Khmer Empire against the vindictive alliance of the Tambralinga kingdom and Srivijayan empire culminated in Rajendra Chola I’s naval attack on the Srivijaya empire.³⁰ G. W. Spencer earlier (1976) termed Rajendra Chola I’s attack on Sri Lanka and Srivijaya empire as the ‘politics of plunder’, but later (1983) he surmised this invasion as the ‘politics of expansion’. Herman Kulke, in his edited book,³¹ has comprehensively highlighted various scholars’ views on Rajendra Chola I’s naval expedition to Southeast Asia. Finally, Kulke contends that Chola’s Srivijaya expedition was probably due to the clash of Rajendra Chola I’s mercantile interest with that of Srivijaya vis-à-vis China.³²

The Chinese Factor

Ancient Chinese coins³³ have been recently excavated at sites located in Thanjavur, Tiruvarur and Pudukottai districts of Tamil Nadu, that is, the Chola heartland. This numismatic evidence proves that a trade relationship existed between the Cholas and the Chinese.³⁴ In fact, the Arabs and Cholas traded with the Chinese directly, using Srivijaya as a port of call and a replenishment hub. But, on the other hand, the Srivijaya Empire, to extort revenue from the Cholas, resorted to covert activities by encouraging sea piracy in the surrounding areas.³⁵ The blackmailing tactics of the Srivijaya Empire were due to their strategic location, where the two crucial points—the Malacca Straits and the Sunda Straits—were under their command. They controlled the Malacca Straits’s northwest opening from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and on the Sumatran side from Pannaion. The Srivijaya Empire, taking advantage of its strategic location, enforced a naval trade monopoly, compelling ships passing through its waters to stop at its ports or risk being plundered.³⁶ The Srivijaya Empire, by adopting such an aggressive and disruptive stance, infuriated Rajendra Chola I, and in retaliation, he led a series of naval attacks on the Srivijayan cities. To some extent, the retaliatory nature of Rajendra Chola I’s Srivijaya invasion does not appear to be quite unjustified. In a reaction to the Srivijaya empire’s belligerency, Rajendra Chola I sent a naval expedition (1023) to Srivijaya, and by the beginning of 1024, Palembang (in Sumatra) and Malaiyur³⁷ were captured. In 1025 ce, Rajendra Chola I’s forces again crossed the Indian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya, attacking several places in modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia.³⁸ The Cholas sacked the capital Kadaram³⁹ and Pannaion Sumatra and Malaiyur in the Malay Peninsula. Finally, Rajendra Chola I invaded Tambralinga and the Gangga Nagara Kingdom in modern-day Malaysia and southern Thailand.⁴⁰ First, Sangrama Vijayatungga Varman,⁴¹ the last Sailendra Dynasty king, was imprisoned. Subsequently, this expedition also marked the end of the Srivijaya dynasty.⁴²^,⁴³ Chola forces conquered large portions of Srivijaya, including its ports Ligor, Kedah and Tumasik⁴⁴ (now Singapore). Rajendra Chola I, in his temple inscription of Tanjore, has given the details of 12 port cities on the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and the Nicobar Islands. Malay literary works, such as Sejarah Malayu, quite clearly corroborate this invasion.⁴⁵

The Chola Navy

Ironically, due to the paucity of naval maritime evidence, few scholars believe that Rajendra Chola I did not maintain a professional navy. In R. C. Mazumdar’s⁴⁶ words:

very little information about Chola ships has survived. Because of this, the technique used for naval battles and how the battles were fought is unknown. He argues that the naval battles fought by Chola were land battles fought on ships, and the ships used were transports used for transporting the army.⁴⁷

It is also possible that the Cholas did not fight naval battles—the battles were fought on land. Although the Cholas undertook several decisive naval expeditions to Southeast Asia, it is very surprising that there is a complete absence of corresponding marine evidence, such as artifacts related to ship wreckage and ravaged ship debris. G. W. Spencer⁴⁸ epigraphically quotes the Tanjore records on the role of Chola elephantry in capturing Kedah. This prompted him to contend that Chola expeditions were a kind of land battle and not purely a naval battle. Spencer believes that Chola had a large number of traders’ ships carrying army men. In Vijay Sukheja’s (another scholar with a naval background) words, the Maritime Silk route encompassed comprehensive trading systems, from the Mediterranean and Persia in the west and Malaya, Sumatra and China in the east.⁴⁹ The trader’s ships, out of necessity, underwent innovation due to the hostile marine mercantile environment at that time. Consequently, they gradually got transformed into warships to some extent. Sukheja further points out that the Chola naval warships were not exclusively meant for naval combat; rather, an armada was assembled using ships taken up from trade (STUFT), the specific term for such an arrangement.

In view of the outcomes of the Chola naval expeditions in various regions, one can speculate that the Cholas had a strong navy, specifically during the reigns of Raja Raja I and Rajendra Chola I. However, Rajendra Chola I’s Southeast Asian naval success story reflects that, as compared to his father, Raja Raja I, he had a stronger navy in his command. Sukheja opines that Rajendra Chola I’s naval expedition of Southeast Asia (1025) was a singular display of the naval power; he possessed and wielded strong political and military power in India. Furthermore, Rajendra Chola I’s fundamental constituents of his navy (i.e., comprising an armada of traders’ ships) indicate that his maritime mercantile and political interests were interdependent and intertwined. In other words, mercantilism was an integral part of Rajendra Chola I’s maritime imperialism, which is definitely a positive marker: He was not a ruthless, destructive plunderer, as labelled by few historians.

Impact of Rajendra Chola’s Belligerence on the International Trade

Rajendra Chola I, by undertaking these political expeditions, got unhindered access to the Chinese market, which had emerged as some of the most lucrative places for international commerce. Traders from almost every region of Asia gathered at these places to procure Chinese commodities such as porcelain and silk and sell foreign goods, ranging from spices to horses. In fact, trading activity in China during the eleventh century, that is, the reign of Rajendra Chola I,⁵⁰ had begun to affect the local economies of several Indian Ocean kingdoms and shaped the lives of merchant communities as far away as the Mediterranean Sea.⁵¹ The Sino-Chola spice trade resulted in the drainage of Chinese gold in abundance that the Song dynasty (960--1279) in succeeding periods prohibited the use of bullion (i.e. gold, silver and bronze) in foreign trade, and silk fabrics and porcelain were ordered to be bartered against foreign goods. As a result, Chola traders primarily exported spices, coconut, fish, betel nuts, etc. to China and in return imported coloured satin, blue and white porcelain, musk, quick silver and camphor from China.⁵² Therefore, Rajendra Chola I’s naval expedition to the Srivijayan ports led to the evolution of an international trading system that linked markets in China to the economies and societies elsewhere in the world.⁵³

Maritime Silk Route

All mainstream historians, such as Upinder Singh,⁵⁴ only refer to Rajendra Chola I’s Southeast Asian naval expedition with its implication on contemporary maritime trade in the Bay of Bengal region. But, Rajendra Chola I’s involvement in the spice trade on the west coast, that is, in the Arabian Sea, appears to be missing in any north Indian historian’s book. Recently, the Madurai inscription of Rajendra Chola talks about the spice ambition of Rajendra Chola, referring to his absolute command of the Chera regions (Kerala, i.e., the Western Ghats) and his firm control of the spice trade in the Arabian Sea region. The famous Indo-Roman trade (Muziris or Kochi, Kerala) in the Erythraean Sea⁵⁵ of the earlier period got transformed into the Chola Arab Spice trade. Now the erstwhile Erythraean Sea got a new name, the Arabian Sea, due to the dominance of the Arab traders in the same water body on the western side of the Indian peninsula. Rajendra Chola I is the only ancient Indian king who had firm control on both sides of the Peninsular India, that is, the Maritime Silk trade⁵⁶ in the Bay of Bengal region⁵⁷ and the Spice trade in the Arabian Sea.⁵⁸ Geographically speaking, the Maritime Silk Route⁵⁹ connected China, Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Egypt and Europe. On the eastern side of Peninsular India, besides Tamil merchants’ association with China, the Maritime Silk Route collectively involved sailors of Malaya and the Indonesian Archipelago in Southeast Asia, Greco-Roman merchants in East Africa, Sri Lanka and Indochina. On the west coast of the Indian Peninsula, this Maritime spice– silk trade route connected the Persian and the Arab traders in the Arabian Sea and beyond.⁶⁰ According to a Turkish journal,⁶¹ in the fourth century ah (i.e., 622 + 399 1021 ce), a period corresponding to the reign of Rajendra Chola I, there was an extensive and significant connection between the ports of southern Iran, especially Siraf, with the port of Khanqua (Canton) in China and those of India.⁶² K. A. Nilakantasastri has also highlighted Cholas’ maritime mercantile relations with the Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago and the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad. In the succeeding periods, Rajendra Chola I’s reign witnessed the defeat and end of the Sailendra dynasty in the Bay of Bengal and on the Arabian Sea side, the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.⁶³ The Abbasid ships were now substituted by the ships of the Fatimids. The latter passed through the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden into the Indian Ocean and reached the Indian coasts for trade and then went further to Southeast Asia and China (where the Song dynasty was replaced by the Tang dynasty). Hermann Kulke⁶⁴ also talks about the Cholas’ maritime dominance since the ninth ce, when the Cholas got involved in extensive maritime and commercial activities, on both sides of the Indian Peninsula. In short, the Cholas had two trading partners, namely the Chinese monarch on the eastern part of the Indian peninsula and, on the other side, the Caliph as the chief of the Islamic state represented by the Arab traders. Traditionally, Chola kings were at the forefront of these commercial ventures.⁶⁵ It reached its zenith during the reign of Rajendra Chola I, when they excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.⁶⁶

Rajendra Chola I, the Builder

Interestingly, after a series of victories in his political expeditions, Rajendra Chola I built many religious monuments and shrines in his empire. As already mentioned, after conquering Bengal and Kalinga, Rajendra Chola I had built a temple called ‘Brihadeeshvara’ in his new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram. Rajendra Chola I also built a large tank named ‘Cholagangam’ in his capital city Gangaikondacholapuram, and it was termed as the liquid pillar of victory. Even in Southeast Asia, he commemorated his victory over Srivijaya and many regions of Sumatra⁶⁷ by numerous other temples. For instance, Rajendra Chola I built the Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem Siva temple of Erumbur in Cuddalore district. To commemorate his victory over Kadarem,⁶⁸ Rajendra Chola I constructed the Kadaremkonda Cholaeswaram Siva temple in Kudimallur in Vellore district. Interestingly, Rajendra Chola had strict instructions to his architects and builders to construct all temples and infrastructure in compliance with Tamil Vastu and Agamasastra texts.⁶⁹ After the successful Sri Lankan expedition, Rajendra Chola I developed the Koneswaram temple in Trincomalee in Sri Lanka.⁷⁰ Rajendra Chola I also renovated the Bhadrakali temple, which was located in the same complex at Trincomalee in Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola I expanded the Pathirakali Amman temple in Trincomalee. This period witnessed architectural innovation as tall gopuram towers were superimposed in the temple shrines of the Koneswaram temple, the Ketheeswaram temple and Munneswaram temple complex in Trincomalee and Puttalam towns in Sri Lanka.⁷¹ In the Tamil heartland, the Brihadisvara Temple of Thanjavur (Rajaraja Chola I) and the temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Rajendra Chola I) are the largest and tallest of all Indian temples of their time. The imperial Cholas’ reign was characterised by numerous architectural innovations and improvisations, leading to the evolution of a distinct South Indian style of architecture, that is, Dravida Architecture. Rajendra Chola I undoubtedly was one of the greatest protagonists of Dravida architecture, famous for its magnificence and grandeur. In the Kaveri belt between Tiruchy, Kumbakonam and Tanjore (the Chola heartland in modern Tamil Nadu), the Imperial Cholas had constructed around 2,300 temples, with a major concentration of 1,500 temples in the Tiruchy–Thanjavur belt.⁷² Gradually, these religious monuments developed into magnificent integrated complexes. Like Chola architecture, Chola art in the form of the Chola Nataraja bronze sculpture, that is, a dancing image of Lord Shiva, became famous worldwide. For instance, the European Organization for Nuclear Science (CERN) headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, has a 2-m-tall Nataraja bronze statue installed. Rajendra Chola I popularised this artistic statue in many Southeast Asian countries through his marine mercantile-cum-naval expeditions.

Funding of Temples

Rajendra Chola I was a builder, par excellence, who mostly commemorated his major naval/military victories by building temples, monuments and sometimes even cities. Moreover, he made lavish donations to many religious monuments for their upkeep. In recent times, a few epigraphic pieces of evidence reflect Rajendra Chola I commemorating his conquests through royal patronage to many temples located in the Tamil heartland, that is, Tamil Nadu. In the Adhipuriswara temple (Chengalpattu district), an inscription reveals that the king donated lavishly to the temple to celebrate his birthday in Maargali.⁷³ Another inscription⁷⁴ refers to a donation by Alvar Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar to the Umamahesvara temple in Konerirajapuram, Thanjavur district, during the third year of Rajendra Chola I’s reign. The Rajarajeswaramudaiya Mahadevar temple, originally built by Raja Raja I and renovated by Rajendra, has a few inscriptions⁷⁵ reflecting Rajendra Chola I’s generous grant to the temple. Rajendra Chola I had granted the revenue of 300 villages for the maintenance of the Brihadeesvara temple. The political patronage of these temples, especially during the reign of imperial Cholas (i.e. both Raja Raja I and Rajendra Chola I), led to the emergence of grand royal temples. Rajendra Chola I, through these building activities, provided employment to the masses. For example, the Brihadishvara temple at Tanjavur had over 600 employees. These included dancing women, dancing teachers, drummers, tailors, goldsmiths and accountants. These religious shrines derived patronage from various sections of society. Interestingly,⁷⁶ all these religious complexes, especially the two magnificent temples at Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, were architectural proclamations of the close connection between the political and religious domains.

There are three relevant alternative models to understand the role of temples in South Indian polity during the Imperial Cholas: (a) Burton Stein’s segmentary model; (b) D. N. Jha’s fragmentation model of feudalism and (c) Herman Kulkes/B. D. Chattopadyaya’s integration model. To begin with, the framework that Stein considers most applicable to early medieval South India is that of the segmentary state. However, Upinder Singh⁷⁷ doubts the usefulness of this model and its applicability to early medieval South India. Scholars like D. N. Jha argue⁷⁸ that the emergence of temples as landed magnates in South India and the increase in the number of pariharas signify the increasing oppression of the peasantry and the growth of feudal agrarian relations. Jha further asserts that temples became centres of political power, leading to the decentralisation of political power. However, Upinder Singh⁷⁹ confidently refuted this view by pointing out that the relationship between kings and temples was not one of rivalry but of an alliance. Patronage to temples was a major means of acquiring, proclaiming and maintaining political legitimacy. To some extent, Herman Kulke’s⁸⁰ integration model appears to be more apt in the case of understanding the temples’ role in the Chola polity. Upinder Singh⁸¹ quotes Hermann Kulke,⁸² who has pointed out that early medieval kings tried to buttress their authority by extending patronage to major pilgrimage places (tirthas), large-scale grants to temples and the construction of imperial temples. Royal patronage was important in the case of specific shrines and reflected the close relationship that kings sought to establish with certain deities and temples. An example was the Brihadishvara temple at Tanjavur (Tanjore); through lavish royal patronage, these temples got institutionalised as an integral part of the Chola governance. These temples, by exercising ritual sovereignty, served the kings as their ideologues in integrating the masses into the empire. Consequently, these religious monuments gradually got transformed into political centres in alliance with the monarchy. There developed some kind of patron– client alliance between the king and the temples. Rajendra Chola I also roped in the affluent mercantile class as collaborators in these constructive projects. Consequently, the affluent traders and their guilds also joined hands with Rajendra Chola I in patronising the temples. After temples’ patronisation by the mercantile class and their guilds, temples as institutions gradually got linked to the Cholas mercantile ventures at that time. Patronage to temples was a major means of acquiring, proclaiming and maintaining political legitimacy. Recently, a rare Rajendra Chola I stone pillar inscription of the eleventh century⁸³ (found at Ellaippatti, near Sellukudi in Pudukkottai district) clearly indicates that merchants and their guilds, too, made donations in the reign of Rajendra Chola I. There are other inscriptions recording gifts made by the Manigramam of Kodambalur and the Dharmavaniyar and Valanjiyar of Tennilangai. There are also some instances of artisan groups getting involved in temple management. We can also extrapolate based on the Madras Museum plates of Uttama Chola (970–985 ce), which indicate that the weavers of Kanchipuram were given the task of managing the financial and other affairs of the local temple. The Chola king endeavoured to share his administrative powers with representatives of different sections of society (such as the brahmanas, merchants and artisans). No doubt, these power-sharing endeavours of Rajendra Chola I were absolutely anti-despotic moves on his part as a monarch in ancient South India.

Role of Merchants and Guilds in Chola Imperialism

As mentioned above, Rajendra Chola I, by patronising temples, developed an alliance with the brahmanas and temple complexes. Their mutual relation was that of patron and client. Next, the Chola kings roped in the merchants and merchants’ guilds. These traders’ guilds, namely Manigramam, Nanadesi, Valanjiyar, Ayyahole and Ainnurruvan, with a concentration of wealth in their disposal, funded Rajendra Chola I’s variety of activities, like political expeditions, both military and naval expeditions, to fulfil his imperialist ambitions of political aggrandizements. In turn, Rajendra Chola I, through his expansionist manoeuvres, provided the trade guilds with broader economic avenues outside his empire. So, in the case of the king–temple relationship, the king was the patron, while in the case of the king–guild relationship, the merchants became the funding agents (i.e., financial patrons) of Rajendra Chola I. However, in both cases, there was a relation of mutual give and take. Corporate organisations of merchants became very prominent from the tenth century onwards. In inscriptions, they are referred to as samaya, which means an organisation created through an agreement or contract. Members of such associations were governed by a code of conduct known as the bananjudharma.

Rajendra Chola I’s naval expedition to Southeast Asia⁸⁴ was driven by the mercantile interests of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar. Recently, a rare inscription⁸⁵ of such traders’ guilds reflects their elevated politico-economic status, and they appear to be at par with the sovereign in the Chola polity. The traders’ guilds’ mercantile interest was the guiding force behind the Chola naval expedition to Southeast Asia. Numerous inscriptions issued by these guilds⁸⁶ and excavated in South India, or outside in Sri Lanka and East and Southeast Asia, are clear indicators. For example, the Padaviya inscription⁸⁷ found in Sri Lanka and issued by the Ayyavole guild eulogies the guild and lists its different component groups. Rajendra Chola I’s reign witnessed an advanced commercial system called emporia. The Cholas, through naval success, gained control of the Strait of Malacca and several other coastal areas.⁸⁸ This, in turn, facilitated the rise of Emporia,⁸⁹ marked by a very successful, profitable mercantile venture generating surplus revenue for the maintenance of the Chola military. Rajendra Chola I, in his Tanjore inscription, talks about a kingdom of Madamalingam, identified with Tambralinga, not far from the Isthmus of Kra (this links Thailand and Malaysia), an important centre of maritime trade.⁹⁰ In a trading alliance with the Khmer Empire, the Cholas gained access to Song China. Consequently, Rajendra Chola I incorporated Chinese vessels into the Chola navy. These networks also extended westwards; the Cholas got engaged in the spice trade with Arabia, North Africa, Anatolia and Turkic peoples. Concludingly, Rajendra Chola I’s special relation with trader guilds exhibits his remarkable foresightedness.

An analogy may be drawn from the history of Great Britain, where the role of merchants at various stages appears to have been highly significant. For example, merchants played an important role during the Reformation as supporters of Protestantism and later in the evolution of the House of Commons, which ultimately contributed to the rise of the British Parliament and democracy. Similarly, most major European nations witnessed the growing influence of merchants during the mercantilist phase, which subsequently culminated in the Industrial Revolution and the ushering in of the modern era.

In the Western world, mercantilism (sixteenth–eighteenth centuries ce) initially evolved in the Iberian Peninsula, particularly in Portugal and Spain, and later spread rapidly across Europe, engulfing Great Britain, France and the Netherlands. This process led to the formation of trading corporations such as the East India Company. Undoubtedly, this global economic transformation affected the entire world, including India.

Chronologically speaking, Chola mercantile imperialism preceded Western mercantilism by nearly five centuries. Despite this, such a significant indigenous historical phenomenon—one that influenced regions beyond the Indian subcontinent like never before—continues to be largely ignored in mainstream historical discourse.

The Arabian Sea

The recently excavated Tamil inscription, identified as the Madurai inscription⁹¹ of Rajendra Chola I, suggests that Rajendra Chola I undertook campaigns in the Kerala hill ranges to secure control over spice production centres and the principal trade routes traversing the region.

Chola inscriptions have earlier been reported only on the East Coast, that is, from the erstwhile south Travancore, now comprising Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. For the first time, a Prasasti of a Chola ruler has come to light from Mepara, near Rajakumari in Idukki hill range of central Kerala (i.e. West coast, i.e. nodal point of Spice trade).

The conquest of Chera territory (present-day Kerala) by Raja Raja I and Rajendra Chola I, especially the towns of Vizhinjam, Kollam and Makodi or Mahodayapuram—the capital of Chera kings—was already known from the inscriptions found in various temples in Kanyakumari and Thanjavur districts. This inscription⁹² is exceptional as it is the only epigraphic evidence which clearly establishes that Rajendra Chola I invaded the Chera territory mainly to take control of the trade routes and spice trade via the hill ranges. Earlier, we had only few numismatic evidences (few coins excavated) in Nedumkandam, Idamakuduru and Poonjar (Idukki district, eleventh century ce) of spice trade with the Romans. Another Rajendra Chola I inscription reflects his victory over the chieftain Theratteanakkarai (Mahodayapuram, the capital of the Chera kingdom).⁹³ In another recent discovery, a rare Rajendra Chola I stone pillar inscription⁹⁴ of the eleventh century has been found at Ellaippatti, near Sellukudi in Pudukkottai district. Surprisingly, this inscription⁹⁵ (instead of eulogising the monarch, i.e., Rajendra I) is conspicuously in praise of the itinerant trade associations merchant group called Thisaiyaarathu Ainootruvar. As mentioned earlier, during Rajendra Chola I’s reign, merchants were treated on par with the monarch. They enjoyed royal rights and had a vast business area covering the entire East Asia. These merchants had a strong influence over the East Asian region. They had an amicable relationship with most of the East Asian kings. These kinds of relationships made the merchants serve as ambassadors between kingdoms. That is why this edict is one of the rarest finds yet. The content of this inscription clearly reflects the king merchant–guild alliance, where greater importance is accorded to a merchant’s guild during the reign of Rajendra Chola I. Obviously, it minimises the autocratic and ruthless image of Rajendra Chola I as portrayed by many scholars from the upper part of the subcontinent.⁹⁶

The Upper Part of the Subcontinent

Rajendra Chola I’s political influence was not confined merely to his thalassocracy in peninsular India; it extended across much of the Indian subcontinent. Mahmud of Ghazni, a contemporary of Rajendra Chola I, invaded the northern parts of the subcontinent seventeen times.

The Cholas and the Paramaras of Malwa appear to have shared converging political interests. Siyaka,⁹⁷ an early ruler of the Paramara dynasty, defeated the Rashtrakutas in 972 ce. The Rashtrakutas had earlier inflicted a severe setback on the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam⁹⁸ (949 ce), where Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated Parantaka I and killed Prince Rajaditya. Given this background of hostility between the Cholas and the Rashtrakutas, Siyaka’s overthrow of the latter may have facilitated a natural alignment between the Cholas and the Paramaras.

Geographically, the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chalukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat were neighbouring powers engaged in a long-standing rivalry.⁹⁹ Both regions were prosperous and strategically important, which likely drew the attention of Mahmud of Ghazni. Although given his north-western base, Mahmud was in a relatively advantageous position to attack Malwa, he instead bypassed it and targeted the Somnath temple on the coastal frontier of Gujarat in January 1026.

Certain epigraphic records—such as the Kulenur edict of Tripuri¹⁰⁰ and the Balagamve temple inscriptions¹⁰¹—suggest the existence of diplomatic contacts or alliances between Bhoja of Malwa and Rajendra Chola I against the Western Chalukyas.¹⁰² It is possible that these alignments influenced the regional balance of power. The Udaipur Prashasti¹⁰³ indicates that Bhoja offered some resistance to Mahmud. Additionally, a Persian chronicle¹⁰⁴ mentions that, after the Somnath raid, Mahmud altered his return route to avoid a potential confrontation with the Paramara forces of Malwa.

Taken together, these literary and epigraphic references suggest that Rajendra Chola I’s diplomatic engagements extended into North Indian political affairs. While direct military intervention in the north remains debated, the available evidence indicates that his influence was not restricted to the Deccan and peninsular India but formed part of a broader subcontinental political network.

Rajendra Chola I’s Legacy

Ironically, three of Rajendra Chola I’s immediate successors—Rajadhiraja I (1044–1054), Rajendra II (1054–1063) and Virarajendra (1063–1070)—had comparatively brief and turbulent reigns. As noted earlier, Rajendra Chola I extended his authority into Bengal and Kalinga through his strategic alliance with the Paramaras of Malwa against the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. Significantly, two of Rajendra I’s sons, Manukulakesari¹⁰⁵ and Rajadhiraja I,¹⁰⁶ lost their lives in conflicts connected with the same Western Chalukyas. Ultimately, Kulottunga I (1070–1122), the maternal grandson of Rajendra Chola I, ascended the throne following a period of instability that culminated in the assassination of Athirajendra after a civil war. Kulottunga I was the son of Rajendra’s daughter Ammangadevi and Rajaraja Narendra (who in turn was the son of Rajendra Chola I’s sister Kundavai) of the Eastern Chalukya line, thereby uniting Chola and Eastern Chalukya claims.

Following in the footsteps of his maternal grandfather, Kulottunga I retained Gangaikondacholapuram—founded by Rajendra Chola I—as a principal capital. Like Rajendra, he also sought to consolidate control over Kalinga,¹⁰⁷ a region of immense strategic importance due to its access to key eastern seaboard ports such as Tamralipti.¹⁰⁸ Control over these coastal nodes facilitated sustained maritime trade and diplomatic engagement with Southeast Asian polities.

With a long reign of fifty-two years, Kulottunga I¹⁰⁹ proved to be a capable and enduring ruler. Nevertheless, Rajendra Chola I’s pioneering initiatives—both in territorial expansion and in strengthening maritime–commercial networks—laid the essential foundations upon which Kulottunga built his success.

Concludingly, Rajendra Chola I was, first and foremost, ‘a trader at heart’. He launched two trade missions to China in 1015 and 1033 ce. In all likelihood, it was primarily to safeguard his commercial interests with China that Rajendra Chola I invaded the Srivijaya Empire. He was one of the few Indian kings to expand his empire beyond South Asia.¹¹⁰ Most probably, he is the only Indian ruler to have conducted a successful naval expedition to Southeast Asia, bringing major regions such as Pegu, Kedah, Srivijaya and Tambralinga under his direct control. He has often been unduly maligned for his aggressive foreign policy. The Maritime Silk Route trade was the leitmotif of Rajendra Chola I’s political expeditions.

On the west coast, he traded with Arab merchants¹¹¹ under the aegis of the Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, while on the eastern coast of the Indian Peninsula, the Song dynasty¹¹² emperor of China was his trading partner.¹¹³ Reputed scholars such as Hermann Kulke and K. A. Nilakanta Sastri have emphasised this aspect in their works. The recently discovered Madurai edicts¹¹⁴ of Rajendra Chola I further highlight his spice trade ambitions, particularly with the Arab world. Similar to the Indo-Roman trade¹¹⁵ of earlier periods, his commerce with Arab traders primarily revolved around spices, from which he derived immense benefit.

In alliance with the Paramaras of Malwa and the Kalachuris of Tripuri, Rajendra Chola I was the only South Indian ruler to penetrate the Gangetic region—the heartland of the ancient Maurya and Gupta empires—and make his presence felt across much of the Indian subcontinent. Following alliances with merchant guilds, he consistently prioritised the commercial interests of his empire in all political expeditions. His campaigns in the east, including the Gangetic expedition and his protracted conflict with the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani in the west, likely reflect his strategic effort to control key coastal trade hubs, such as Kalinga on the east coast and Sopara on the west coast.

Rajendra Chola I’s political ventures, undertaken in close association with Tamil merchant guilds, resemble the later European East India Companies in their focus on trade-driven expansion. He was a visionary monarch who leveraged trade to finance a wide array of initiatives—from the construction of temples and public welfare projects to military and naval expeditions aimed at establishing a thalassocratic empire. With a positive intent, he commemorated his political victories through the construction of monumental temples. Like his father, he was a builder par excellence, responsible for one of the largest and most magnificent temple complexes in India. Through temple patronage, Rajendra Chola I also developed mechanisms to integrate diverse sections of society into the governance of his empire.

Therefore, to describe Rajendra Chola I merely as ‘a worthy son of a worthy father’ would be to underestimate his achievements. In many respects, he surpassed his illustrious father, Raja Raja Chola I. Unarguably, Rajendra Chola I was one of the greatest Indian kings of all time.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Notes

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