Abstract
This article presents lessons learned from a design project that explored the possibility of incorporating waste into the design of a school prototype. The authors worked with professional architects, a waste artist, environmental scientists and local waste operators to uncover new uses and applications for discarded items. As a result, bottles, aluminium cans, reclaimed doors, crushed concrete and second-hand bricks, etc. were identified, explored and integrated into the architectural design. This article serves as a catalyst that advocates the use of reclaimed materials in the field of design and planning. In particular, it highlights the challenges and issues that need to be addressed in carrying out design work with waste. Designers and practitioners interested in minimizing waste generation by proposing the use of reclaimed materials will find this article useful.
Introduction
A newspaper on a desk is a publication to be read; it becomes a historical reference when archived in the library, and turns into “rubbish” only when it is thrown into a trash bin! What is called rubbish is, in fact, a resource that has been misplaced at the dumpsite.
Modern societies continually extract raw materials from nature, manufacture them into products and dispose of them after a period of time. What we consider as ‘waste’ is, in fact, precious resources that have been misplaced (Brewer & Mooney, 2008; Merino, et al., 2010). Although many scholars and architectural design practitioners would concur with this statement, most of us, however, lack the required skill and knowledge to fully explore the potential embedded in these materials. As a result, valuable resources may end up being discarded into already overloaded landfills. More importantly, this linear pattern of consumption encourages a ‘once-through’ system by which materials are used at one end and waste expelled at the other (Yeang, 2006). However, in recent years, there is growing interest among design practitioners, whether architects or engineers, in reusing salvaged components or recycled materials in the construction industry (Brewer and Mooney, 2008; Collivignarelli and Sorlini, 2001; Demir, 2009; Lin, et al., 2010; Muller, et al., 2010; Mymrin and Vazquez-Vaamonde, 2001; Nordby, et al., 2009; Topcu and Guncan, 1995). Instead of seeing materials at the end of their useful life as a problem, the designers look at these discarded items as an opportunity (Gorgolewski, et al., 2008; Merino, et al., 2010; Weil, et al., 2006) to promote the minimization of waste, saving of energy and reduction of carbon emissions (Kay, 2006; Yeang, 2006). More importantly, it reveals an alternative route toward sustainable waste management by reusing discarded items creatively.
Although the reusing of building components and recycling of materials could be as old as Rome, Egypt and Greece (Addis, 2006), such ideas are rarely being practised in modern societies (Agamuthu, 2008; Kourmpanis, et al., 2008; Merino, et al., 2010; Poon, 1997). Kay (2006) noted that the acceptance of materials reclamation in mainstream professional practice in the construction industry is still in its infancy, and needs exposure and the reassurance of its peers. In addition, previous researchers (Addis, 2006; Laefer and Manke, 2008) documented that little progress has been made to incorporate waste into architectural design, especially among the conventional practitioners who prefer to work with new materials and products. Accordingly, scholars and design practitioners concluded that more research is needed to explore the issues and challenges in carrying out design work with waste.
In this article, we address the gaps in research by conducting a pilot project in Malaysia. The purpose is to explore the key issues as follows:
Availability and source of reclaimed materials in developing countries, particularly in Malaysia
Inspection and assessment of reclaimed materials during the design stage
Training for demolition and design for deconstruction to minimize construction waste
Storage and refurbishment of reclaimed materials.
We wish to acknowledge that the school prototype included in the following discussion is an un-built project in Malaysia. The project did not advance beyond the schematic design stage as the construction proved to be more costly than anticipated. Nevertheless, the innovations and ideas generated from this project can be applied in Malaysia or other developing countries with a similar contextual issue. In addition, the information and experience are valuable lessons to be shared.
Material and methods
The research took place in the town of Kepong, 16 km northwest of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. In 2008 there was a need for a new primary school owing to the increased number of students. We proposed a trial product educational facility inspired by reclaimed materials. Construction wastes were salvaged from 37 units of vacated residential quarters near to the proposed school. These quarters were scheduled for demolition as a result of the transfer of its occupants to a new apartment building. The authors conducted site visits to identify potential wastes that could be salvaged from these two-storey quarters. Subsequently, a reclamation audit using AutoCAD (computer-aided design software) was carried out to quantify the reclaimed materials. Additionally, the local waste operators were consulted to identify urban discards that could be utilized for design and construction.
Later, we organized six design workshops, which took place over a period of 28 weeks. A panel of experts was invited to join the workshops. These experts were selected based on a purposeful sampling and consisted of (i) 4 professional architects who had 20 years of experience in sustainable design; (ii) a waste artist who repurposed urban discards and found items into innovative products; and (iii) 2 environmental scientists from the university who specialized in waste management. The experts reviewed and provided professional input on the design intent, constructability, feasibility and practicality aspects. We used idea sketches, two- and three-dimensional drawings, and a study model (Figure 1) as a medium of communication with the experts. The questions asked and the subsequent discussion that ensued during the workshops focused on the four aforementioned key issues. An example of the following semi-structured interview questions will give a clearer view of how the design workshops were organized:
What barriers are there in reusing discarded materials and how can these barriers be resolved?
What are the possible applications for various salvaged components?
What refurbishment work is required to allow the waste to be reused?
What is the cost of reclaimed materials compared with its new equivalent on the market? The cost should include the expenditure in dismantling, repair/refurbish, storage, installation and maintenance.
Do the reclaimed materials comply with local standard and regulation? What tests are available for certifying the reused items?
Selected drawing and study model.
In addition, using the participant observation technique, we wrote diary entries and field notes to document the design activity. This was because we (also known as the project team) had taken a more participatory role in the design process where we contributed to the research outcome by sharing our expertise and knowledge. One of us is a qualified LEED Accredited Professional (LEED AP) with an architectural background and has worked on various conceptual design projects involving experimentation with waste in both academic and professional fields. Furthermore, we made preliminary suggestions and gave ideas as prompts or cues for more meaningful discussion with the panel of experts during the workshop sessions based on a structured group interview approach.
Results
Six types of demolition wastes were identified and quantified during the site visits, and two types of solid wastes were identified and quantified from the local waste operators. As a result, the following reclaimed materials were sourced and utilized:
907 m3 of concrete
5600 m2 of bricks
43 doors
78 windows
8040 m2 of timber in various sizes
740 m of polyvinylchloride (PVC)/unplasticized polyvinylchloride (uPVC) pipes
8000 aluminium/metal tins
15,000 glass/plastic bottles.
The outcome of the design workshops was a series of strategies to incorporate wastes identified earlier, as listed, into the design of a school prototype (hereafter designated ‘The Eco-Literacy School’). It signified a unique way of designing and constructing by utilizing reclaimed and salvaged materials that otherwise ended in landfill. The authors would further describe the findings from the design workshops using collected quotes made by the experts, as follows.
Concrete
During the first design workshop, it was established that there was no feasible way to utilize reclaimed slab and structure as the expenses in handling and storing the concrete components would be too high. For that reason, the project team proposed to crush the reinforced concrete into smaller pieces using specialized machinery and equipment. The crushed concrete could provide a rich source of recycled aggregate for on-site foundations work, whereas the reinforcement bars could be melted off-site to make other steel products. The proposal was supported by environmental scientist A, who stated that, ‘…recycling concrete on- or off-site tended to reduce a huge amount of demolition rubble’.
Additionally, 20% of the crushed concrete was to be stored and reserved to fill the gabions in the classroom (Figure 2). Collected rain water would pour into these gabions as it streams down from the roof. After some time, mould and fungus would start to grow on the surfaces, providing an opportunity to create an incidental biological lesson for children (Figure 3).
The gabion consists of the holding cage and crushed concrete.
The gabion taking the effect of collected rainwater.
Bricks
In the second design workshop, the discussions were focused on the reclamation of bricks where professional architect B stated ‘…it is not feasible to reclaim on a brick-by-brick basis. It will delay the deconstruction and consume a lot of man-power and time’. Additionally, environmental scientist B highlighted that ‘…it is not practical to separate the bricks because mortar is used as a bonding agent’. Thus, reusing the brick as before was not a realistic practice.
However, the project team was dedicated to finding alternative uses for the bricks to prevent this resource from ending up in landfills. A possible solution was put forward in the fourth design workshop, where the project team proposed to crush the bricks and recycle on-site as infill or base-course. This was an economical and practical solution minimizing transport, storage and handling costs. Additionally, 70 m3 of the crushed bricks would be applied as an aesthetic finish for the pathway in the garden, concurrently creating visual interest and illustrating the creativity in reusing materials.
Doors and windows
The later stages of research revealed that not all of the salvaged 43 doors and 78 windows could be used in the new school design as a result of design standards that did not meet the country’s fire and safety regulations. These items had to be dropped from the reclamation list.
Additionally, the dismantling process of the doors and windows was more challenging than initially predicted, as pointed out during the third design workshop by professional architect A: ‘…local contractors in Malaysia are not trained to dismantle doors and windows for reuse purposes. Thus, they have very little knowledge and experience in handling salvaged components. It will be difficult to ensure that the doors and windows are not damaged during the deconstruction process’.
Additional time and money would be needed to train local contractors in the proper manner of dismantling and handling the salvaged materials. As a result, although reclaimed doors and windows could be purchased at a lower price than brand new doors/windows, additional costs might be incurred for the training of workers, storage and refurbishment.
Timber
During the fourth design workshop, professional architect C stated that ‘…reusing timber for exterior or structural purpose in the hot and humid climate of Malaysia may not be the best solution; however, this reclaimed timber has a great potential in the interior spaces’.
The project team was directed to explore the possibility of reusing timber in flooring, as floor planks for classrooms, as it was neither structural nor exposed to weather. Subsequently, environmental scientist B concern over the quality of the reclaimed timber. He highlighted that some of the timber may need extra treatment, as outlined by Addis (2006), and Woolley and Kimmins (2000). Thus, the project team conducted additional inspections to identify reclaimed timber that needed treatment. The poor economical gain and difficulty in using reclaimed timber did not deter the project team in collaborating with the waste artist, as the timber floor planks provided a variety of textures and colours, along with a more interesting and imaginative play area, for the children.
PVC/uPVC Pipes
In the beginning, the project team proposed that PVC and uPVC pipes be reused in the design of the new school. However, the deconstruction process tended to damage these pipes leading to problems of leakage. The problem was solved in the fifth design workshop when professional architect D suggested that ‘it is almost impossible to reuse these PVC pipes, but we can repurpose them for alternative uses’.
The suggestion inspired the project team to formulate two possible applications. Eighty percent of the reclaimed PVC/uPVC pipes would be utilized as railing for the roof garden, whereas the remaining 20% would be used to construct a simple garden trellis to grow creepers. Subsequently, a few full-scale mock-ups were constructed in the laboratory to test connections and constructability (Figure 4). The study models also helped to establish the properties (i.e. durability, strength, etc.) of the pipes and thus informed the project team how to work with, and use, them as architectural components.
Construction of mock-ups in laboratories.
Tins and bottles
Tins and bottles are not construction materials; however, they could be acquired easily through the local waste operators providing a steady chain of supply. Therefore, the project team was determined to incorporate tins and bottles into the school design. During the third workshop, professional architect A highlighted that ‘…it will be great if the wall is like a collage, composed of numerous tins and bottles’.
As a result, a shelf-like wall cassette system was developed. These wall cassettes were used to store tins and bottles that students could bring from home (Figure 5). Wall cassettes that were filled up with bottles would eventually become a ‘bottle wall’, which would create light and colour when sunlight passes through it. Furthermore, the wall cassettes were utilized as part of the ‘kit-of-parts’ design approach that facilitated deconstruction at the end of the life cycle (Figure 6). Most of the architectural components could be assembled and dissembled easily for reuse and recycling purposes in the future. This would ensure that the materials were continuously in active service and diverted from landfill.
The installation of wall cassettes.
‘Kit-of-parts’ approach.
Construction of a full-size exemplar building using urban discards.
Discussion and conclusions
The emphasis of this article is placed on waste minimization from the initial stage of design. In particular, it highlights opportunities to reduce, reuse and recycle through a cradle-to-cradle design approach. The Eco-Literacy School promotes the reduction of waste through resource efficiency whereby the use of a ‘kit-of parts’ construction provides a modular solution that advances waste minimization and deconstruction. Thus, most of the architectural components can be assembled and dissembled easily for reuse and recycling purposes. It ensures that the materials are constantly in active service and are diverted from landfill. In addition, various salvaged materials from adjacent demolition projects are explored and tapped for their potential secondary use. Waste materials are transformed into valuable resources through creativity and imagination, paired with local technology and expertise. Furthermore, the key strategies in material use echo the waste hierarchy by placing a higher priority on reusing waste on-site compared with off-site recycling. The project team acknowledged that on-site reuse imposes minimum cost and environmental impacts, whereas off-site recycling consumes extra energy and resources. As a result, waste materials are only sent for off-site recycling or recovery if it is not feasible or practical to reuse them on-site.
Results from the workshop discussions provided insights on the issues and possible solutions of designing with material reclamation opportunities, thus providing the basis of a design approach while highlighting the difficulties of designing with such an approach. A conceptual framework from this research proposes a relationship between the aesthetic and functional values of waste, and, in turn, providing theoretical guide for further exploration on the subject area, linking architecture to waste management and vice versa.
We acknowledge that designing and reusing materials reclaimed from building industry is not a simple process (da Rocha & Sattler, 2009; Taha, et al., 2004; Thormark, 2001). Unlike a conventional design approach that is based on a set of pre-determined specifications documented from a design brief, incorporating waste into architectural design requires the architectural design practitioners to responsd to the opportunities afforded by the discards. The design process demands an intensive effort in the experimenting, testing and sourcing of materials. This process is often time- and cost-consuming, although the outcomes are often rewarding. New usage or applications could be developed from the wastes without losing their original qualities or characteristics. More importantly, the waste is utilized for its potential second usage and function beyond its original purposes (Community Museum Project, 2010). Thus, waste should be perceived as a catalyst for innovative design products.
The conceptual framework from this research is summarized in Table 1 by firstly describing the criteria thus linking the issues with the solutions. The original four key issues that contribute to the aesthetic and functional values of waste utilization and materials reclamation will be further discussed and concluded in the following sections.
Summary on the issues and solutions.
Issue 1: Availability and source of materials
Architectural design practitioners should anticipate the problems of incorporating salvaged or reclaimed materials into new building as it involves a different design approach. A conventional design approach usually conceives new products in mind. However, in order to succeed in using a certain percentage of reused or recycled components in a new building, designers would need to rethink an alternative design brief.
The approach involves a comprehensive review and listing of the materials in a form of an inventory, identifying suitable reused or recycled items. The availability of the salvaged materials varies with location, incurring costs for storage and accessibility. Thus, designing with waste is a challenging task in balancing cost, availability and environmental benefit (Addis, 2006). Ideally, the source of the reclaimed materials should be located close to the construction site, which will reduce the cost and time for transportation while minimizing the environmental impact of the salvaged materials.
The supply and demand for the reclamation industry is not as mature as the market for new products, and finding suitable wastes for reuse or recycling purposes is not an easy task. Mass media, such as the internet and local newspapers, could provide some useful information on the source of reclaimed materials. Experience shows that the most effective way of locating second-hand or reclaimed materials is through local waste operators.
Issue 2: Inspection and assessment
Salvaged materials have to be assessed and tested by the design team, unlike the new goods and materials, which normally come with a complete set of product information and technical data. Reclaimed materials or second-hand components are only available on an ad hoc basis and are not covered with any warranty. Inspections would have to be conducted prior to the purchase of any reclaimed materials. An examination of the standard and quality of the goods supplied should go hand-in-hand with its suitability to be incorporated into the new building use.
The training and experience of the designers along with the knowledge and creativity is essential to assess the architectural value and suitability of the components and materials for reclamation, refurbishment and reuse. A full-size mock up constructed to be tested is warranted for the designers and contractors to be able to judge whether the salvaged material is adequate for the purpose intended.
More importantly, the designers need to ensure that the salvaged materials meet the health and safety standards regulated by the local authorities and government agencies. The designers can perform tests and experiments with the help of specialists to determine the performance and durability of the reused and recycled items. The cost incurred and time taken for such tests should be built into the overall project planning to avoid any discrepancy in costing or unnecessary delay in the construction schedule.
Issue 3: Training for demolition and design for deconstruction
Making an initial contact and establishing an agreement with the owners of the nearby demolition projects could provide control over the demolition process and the acquisition of more pristine salvaged material. Reclamation work involves a specialization in the techniques of deconstructing, thus contractors need to undergo specific training or attend workshops prior to the commencement of demolition. The type of training involves methods of fixing, and identifying quantities and properties of the elements and materials that are expected to be dismantled.
New buildings should be designed with deconstruction in mind. Yeang (2006) noted that in order to facilitate reclamation, the building products or materials should not be made into composites. Combination of materials in a composite form would potentially result in one material becoming impure, thus affecting the recycling of the other material. Additionally, the number of joints ought to be minimized and the connections should be designed to withstand repeated assembly and disassembly, which requires the designers to put extra effort into the way the various parts and components are assembled, fixed and connected (Yeang, 2006).
Issue 4: Storage and refurbishment
Salvaged goods and materials need to be sorted out, categorized, cleaned and transported to a storage area after they have been purchased from the reclamation market. The designer should anticipate two periods of storage, where one period is between the purchase and refurbishment, and the other period is after refurbishment prior to use in construction (Addis, 2006), thus involving complex management of space, logistics and work on top of the infrastructure cost (Community Museum Project, 2010).
Additionally, salvaged materials will usually need to be upgraded in order to meet the criterion required for reuse. Reclaimed materials reuse is not a common practice and the designers, on behalf of the clients, often can not afford to employ an independent technical support team to carry out the refurbishment work. Thus, any refurbishment or reconditioning should be included in the specification during the tender process so that the appointed building contractor will perform the tasks with his/her own personnel and technical support. However, the challenge is to design and reuse the reclaimed materials creatively with minimum cost to refurbish and within the capacity of the local contractors.
In conclusion, the four key issues that relate to the aesthetic and functional values of waste utilization and materials reclamation suggests, as a theoretical guide, linking architecture to waste management. All building industry stakeholders, from government agencies and authorities to designers, owners, developers, contractors and professionals would be affected as future use of waste could be the norm rather than the alternative, as the earth can not afford anymore landfills, and global warming and climate change problems, such as flooding and temperature rise, occur. The lessons learned from this typical study implicated issues on the policies, both in implementation and training of specialised skills, the practice of working with reclaimed materials thus providing the basis for a catalyst to further explore these issues.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The Eco-Literacy School is an un-built project that remains as a visionary school on the drawing boards. However, at the time of writing, a full-size exemplar building is under construction in one of the public schools (
). Ideas and innovations from the Eco-Literacy School are extracted and applied in this demonstration facility. The building is conceived as a recycling centre built with a large proportion of reclaimed materials. Further information on this exemplar building will be reported in another article.
Funding
Support for this research was provided by the Exploratory Research Grant Scheme (ERGS) by the Ministry of Higher Education under the project number ER001-2011A.