It’s Been a Long Time Comin’

Abstract

This article provides a decade by decade examination of major themes in the public personnel literature as published in two leading journals: Public Administration Review and Review of Public Personnel Administration. The article also highlights research addressing issues related to the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Keywords

Civil Rights Act representation social equity public administration history public personnel

Few people now remember when want ads were segregated by race and gender; when Black police officers were forbidden to arrest Whites; when an interracial meeting could not be held in an Atlanta hotel. These facts of life in the 1960s were changed by the Civil Rights Act.

Andrew Young, An Easy Burden (1996)

On July 2, 1964, President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, as passed and amended, declared that a person could not be discriminated against on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, or disability. To illustrate its importance, Bayard Rustin, one of the architects of modern civil rights movement, described the decade that concluded with the passage of the Civil Rights Act as “the period in which the legal foundation of racism in America were destroyed” (1965 p.25). Still, in the wake of the re-election of the first African American President, it is easy to lose sight of the importance of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In an era when three women were selected to serve as the literal face of nation to the rest of the world as Secretary of State, it is easy to forget that just a month before the Civil Rights Act was signed into law the following passage appeared in the pages of Public Administration Review:

A concerted movement is underway to free American women from prejudices and outmoded customs which act as barriers to their full participation in American life. These discriminations are particularly operative in the working community and act to limit or restrict the employment and advancements opportunities of well-qualified women. (Harrison, 1964, p. 78)

It must be understood that the United States of America was transformed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Not surprisingly, the field of public administration was also transformed. While slow at first, the Civil Rights Act has, directly or indirectly, inspired a generation’s worth of public personnel research. Public personnel scholars have used a variety of approaches, including social equity, representative bureaucracy, constitutional and legal studies, to assess the impact of this legislation. It is a feat that is both remarkable, yet wholly unremarkable, because in many ways, applying the best research minds in the field to help practitioners, politicians, and the public understand the implication of changes that impact our administrative system is what the field has always done. As events emerge in the form of new laws, societal changes, or managerial dilemmas, public administration scholars have sought to create a body of knowledge that can provide information, answers, and guidance.

In that spirit, this article will present a decade by decade examination of themes in the public personnel literature as published in two leading journals: Public Administration Review and Review of Public Personnel Administration (ROPPA). So as not to duplicate or distract from other well-written, well-researched articles that have also covered this literature (Cooper, 1990; Gaus, 1950; Stillman, 2011; West, 2010), special attention will be paid to how researchers have examined the Civil Rights Act, as well as other legislation, executive orders, and important societal events over the past 75 years. The hope here is to show the importance of the Civil Rights Act while simultaneously helping to put it in perspective.

1940s: In the Beginning

Civil Rights, the all-encompassing catch phrase that is now used to describe issues such as discrimination, equality, and the rights of minority groups in our society, did not figure prominently in the early public personnel research literature. This, despite the fact that there were important precursors, such as the Ramspeck Act of 1940 and Executive Order 8802 issued in 1941, which sought to eliminate discrimination in the federal service. In addition, in 1957, the Civil Rights Act, primarily a voting rights bill, was passed.

One of the first things to jump out at a reader of Public Administration Review (PAR) articles during the 1940s is the number of articles written by practitioners. Of the articles where public personnel were either a primary or significant focus, nearly half were written by practitioners. These articles ranged from descriptive accounts of personnel practices in specific agencies to administrative profiles of influential individuals.

World War II was certainly an influence during this period. Engelbert (1944), in an examination of military and civilian personnel practices, noted the development of the military’s now famous widespread testing system. He also described an early attempt by the military to employ disabled workers by setting minimum standards that would allow individuals to fill positions where their performance would not be affected by their disabilities. There was also interest in comparative personnel research. For instance, Dahl (1947) warned of the danger of trying to import administration from other societies while ignoring the social context in which those administrative practices were developed. He noted that the desire to import the British civil service to America was incredibly short sighted and that the development of that personnel system was the result of a 400-year-old process rooted in hierarchy and tradition. There was also a descriptive account of Japanese Administration and the country’s focus on Administrative Legalism, the belief that administrative decisions must be rooted in a specific existing statue or legislation (Esman, 1947).

1950s: Coming into Focus

Several trends that were started in the 1940s reappeared in the journal in the 1950s. One was the belief that researchers must look beyond the American personnel system for knowledge and insight. This would include examinations of other places and other times, such as the studies of contemporary Great Britain (Epstein, 1950) or ancient Egypt (Beyer, 1959). The journal also continued to feature the work of practitioners weighing in the subject with articles from authors working at the U.S. agencies including the Civil Service Commission and the Treasury Department and the Department of the Navy.

The 1950s also established the idea that public personnel researchers were capable of addressing “big questions” of the field. Parsons (1957) wondered why research on the personnel function was not viewed in the same light as other aspects of management such as budgeting or accounting. Other topics explored during this period included the prestige of public employment (Janowitz & Wright, 1956), the role of professionalization (Willbern, 1954), and worker’s rights and privilege (Dotson, 1955).

Training also figured prominently into public personnel research. For instance, a pair of articles examined the role of training as it pertained to public workers. Kallen (1959) noted that the Federal service was slow, by 170 years, to embrace the importance of in-service training for workers. Walter Halset (1952), the chairman of the Sacramento School of Government, also detailed a training/educational program for local government workers to receive a certificate in public management.

Finally, there was considerable concern about the public sector’s ability to recruit and retain qualified personnel. Perkins (1957), who looked at the Eisenhower administration and its promise to “bring to Washington the best brains in the country,” noticed that many of those best brains, particularly high-level political appointees, were in his words “men well on in years” who “became available because they were on the verge of retirement, if not actually in retirement” (p. 2). Davy (1959), in what could be reviewed as a major precursor to the study of public sector motivation, researched what factors or attributes attracted employees to the public service (p. 229). There was also debate on the obstacles and restrictions posed by the civil service system and how those restrictions might serve as a barrier to hiring talented employees (Gladieux, 1952; Ramspeck, 1952). While recruitment emerged as a major theme, none of the research addressed the recruitment or employment of women and people of color.

The 1960s: A Transitional Period

Throughout the most of 1960s, despite the passage of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, the paucity of research related to civil rights continued. Instead, many researchers turned their attention to the issue of collective bargaining. Changes made to strengthen the collective bargaining rights of employees at the federal level, and in several states, resulted in a shift in the field. Unlike now, where public sector unions often outpace their private sector counterparts in terms of membership growth, the move toward increased public unionization in the early 1960s very much represented a brave new world.

During this period, articles reflected the field’s attempt to make a sense of the new changes. According to Sharpe and Freedman (1962), authors of a case study of Hartford, Connecticut’s experience with unionization, “[c]ollective bargaining in municipal government still resides in a vast, largely uncharted sea of experimentation and ‘do it yourself’ arrangements” (p. 13). In addition, because Hartford was a council-manager city, they expressed the need to clarify the role of the city manager in collective bargaining negotiations.

By 1965, researchers were raising serious questions about the implications of collective bargaining. Krause (1965) indicated that changes in Wisconsin labor law, making them the first state to grant collective bargaining rights to public employees, altered what had previously been a positive relationship between labor and management in the City of Milwaukee. Toward the end of the decade, the questions continued, particularly as scholars tried to grapple with the issue of labor strikes.

In 1968, Posey would describe the mood of the 1960s as “one of dissatisfaction with the status quo expressed in action more than words” (p. 115). With inspiration drawn from the civil rights movement and student sit-ins, along with increased unionization, he argued that these forces had combined to produce a “new militancy” among public sector workers. Along a similar line, Nesvig (1968) noted that public workers increasingly turned to labor strikes, or even to the threat of a strike, to gain an advantage during labor negotiations. These developments, along with studies on the growing conflict between traditional merit system and the growth of collective negotiations, particularly as it pertains to the relationship between merit and seniority (Camp & Lomax, 1968), indicated that collective bargaining was poised to become a what would become a ripe area of study for personnel research

As mentioned earlier, even though research on issues related to the Civil Rights Act was slow to develop, there were notable exceptions. A month before the Civil Rights Act was passed, PAR published “The Working Woman: Barriers in Employment” by Evelyn Harrison. Harrison (1964), who also served on the President’s Commission on the Status of Women, detailed the barriers faced by female federal workers in terms of employment and advancement. A few years later, Mindlin (1966) argued against removing race designation information on employment forms and applications, a tool previously used to screen and discriminate against minority applicants, citing the need to retain the data so that progress toward the goals of civil rights legislation could be measured. Although small in quantity, these articles managed to anticipate the future of research in the field.

1970s: The Growth and the Change

The 1970s was an active time for public personnel research. From 1970 to 1976, public personnel accounted for 32.1% of the articles published in PAR, trailing only policy/planning and general management in terms of research subject matter (Bowman & Hajjar, 1978). It was clear that the subfield had come quite a long way since the 1950s.

As suggested in the previous section, there was also a marked increase in research related to the Civil Rights Act during the decade. The January/February 1970 issue of PAR included an article titled “Making Equality of Employment Opportunity a Reality in the Federal Service.” With heavy reliance on seminal texts such as Samuel Krislov’s (1967) The Negro in Federal Employment: The Quest for Equal Opportunity, Charles Silberman’s (1969) Crisis in Black and White and the Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (United States National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968), also known as the Kerner Commission Report, Reevesls (1970) laid out the challenges facing the federal government as it moved from a discriminatory personnel process toward one rooted in the principle of equal opportunity.

In the years to follow, Markoff (1972) offered an examination of the Federal Women’s Program effort to establish a legal and regulatory framework to increase equal opportunity for women and the recruitment and retention of female public employees. Early, in 1974, Lloyd Nigro edited a “mini-symposium” on Affirmative Action in Public Employment. Articles written by Bernard Rosen, Charles Levine, and Catherine Lovell explored key issues such as the need for affirmative action and the importance of representative bureaucracy, a topic that would gain a good deal of attention in the field of public administration by pioneers such as Kenneth Meier. Later, that same year, the journal also published a symposium on Minorities in Public Administration edited by Adam Herbert and produced articles on the failure of public management to consider the perspective of Black citizens and employees (Hunt, 1974), discrimination faced by Hispanic public workers (Diaz de Krofcheck & Jackson, 1974), and issues in the educational pipeline that have limited or prohibited greater minority representation (Dobbins & Walker, 1974).

In all, the 1970s did become a very fruitful period for civil rights related research. The range of issues researched during the decade from the constitutionality of personnel examinations (Rosenbloom & Obuchowski, 1977) to the capability of representative bureaucracy and the merit system (Kranz, 1974) to the relationship between unionization and minority employment levels (Preston, 1977) only helps to underscore the vitality of the period.

Still, it would be a mistake to believe that the field was only concerned with research emerging from the Civil Rights Act. As Newland (1976) noted, the emergence of bigger government, populist legislation, and union growth in the preceding decades had resulted in a personnel administration system “pushed to the brink of ineffectiveness” (p. 534). Evidence coming from federal, state, and local governments advanced the idea of an antiquated personnel system in urgent need of reform. For instance, preliminary research on a human resources planning system in Pennsylvania (Lee, Crawford, & Rabena, 1970) revealed an executive workforce with salaries that lagged behind workers in the private sector. Reforms implemented in New York City resulted in a revision of the City’s Charter, decentralized personnel authority to managers, and the creation of an independent civil service commission (Allan & Rosenberg 1978).

In 1978, President Carter signed the Civil Service Reform Act, the biggest reform of the federal civil service since the passage of the Pendelton Act in 1883. While much of the research on the Civil Service Reform Act, or CSRA, would occur during the 1980s, a few scholars were able to weigh in before the decade’s end. According to Dempsey (1979), the legislation, which was considered a cornerstone of the Carter Presidency, included several key elements, such as the reorganization which resulted in the establishment of the Office of Personnel Management, modifications of the employees’ appeal process, a new merit pay plan, changes in federal labor relations, and the creation of the Senior Executive Service (SES). While Dempsey found the CSRA to be “more promising” than Carter’s other reform efforts such as Zero-Based Budgeting, Lynn and Vaden (1979) noted that prior to passage, the proposed reforms suffered from a lack of support among career federal executives.

1980: New Beginnings

In 1980, personnel scholars were greeted with a new outlet for their research, the ROPPA. According to West (2010), the founding editorial team of Steven Hays, Richard Kearney, Charlie Tyer, and later, Blease Grahman “sought to identify significant trends in the field to better inform the scholarship and professional practice of public HRM [Human Resource Management].” During the 1980s, this translated into studies of the CRSA and Affirmative Action/Equal opportunity.

In terms of civil service reform, much of the attention was directed at the various parts of the CRSA, particularly merit pay. Perry (1986) questioned the theoretical framework used to design the merit pay system, while Thayer (1987) and Nicolay (1989) debated the appropriateness of employee performance appraisals as a tool to determine merit compensation. It was also noted that there was little difference between merit pay recipients and non-recipients in terms of motivation or perceptions of the organization, (Daley, 1987).

Ban, Goldenberg, and Marzotto (1982) noted that factors such as the slow implementation CRSA process and a federal hiring freeze on new federal employees could reduce incentives for managers to terminate poor performers knowing that they may not be replaced. Ingraham (1987) argued that the SES was plagued by frequent turnover and that the appointees who were selected were often ill prepared, lacking management experience or specific knowledge of their agency or program.

Throughout the decade, scholars examined affirmative action/equal opportunity/representation issues from a range of perspectives including the federal government (Clynch & Gaudin, 1982; Lewis, 1986, 1988), state and local governments (Bocher, 1982; Davis & West, 1984; Dometrius & Sigelman, 1984; Lewis, 1989; Rehfuss, 1986), representative bureaucracy (Lewis, 1989), and the courts (Kelso, 1980; Nalbandian, 1989; Riccucci, 1997; Rosenbloom, 1988). While studies did show an increase in female and minority employment (Cayer & Sigelman, 1980; Dometrius & Sigelman, 1984; Lewis, 1988), research also showed that many barriers remained. For one, in the federal government, women and minorities were less likely to hold supervisory positions than white males (Lewis, 1986). In addition, employment discrimination continued to be a problem. Among state employees, including women, non-Whites, and the elderly, one out of five claimed that he or she felt discriminated against in the workplace (Hopkins, 1980).

The 1990s: Reinventing Public Personnel Research

There was a sense of deregulation in the air during the 1990s. Reports from Presidential commissions, Leadership for America: Rebuilding the Public Service (National Commission on Public Service, 1989), From Red Tape to Results: Creating a Government That Works Better and Costs Less (National Performance Review, 1993), or Hard Truths/Tough Choices: An Agenda for State and Local Reform (National Commission on the State and Local Public Service, 1993), along with the book Reinventing Government (Osborne & Gaebler, 1992), all championed the belief that government at all level required more decentralization and deregulation. The perception that government was not working as it should commonly became known as the quiet crisis.

The idea of a government in decline and in need of reinvention and reform drove much of the personnel scholarship. One popular subject was employee turnover. Several scholars produced research examining the relationship between the quiet crisis and turnover (Desai & Hamman, 1994; Lewis, 1991; Whitaker & DeHoog, 1991). Public service motivation also emerged from this period as Perry and Wise (1990) advanced the idea that the field must do more to understand the unique motives of public sector workers. Kearney and Hays (1998) argued that a cross-national study revealed that reinventing government posed a threat to traditional personnel values including neutral competence, merit, and professionalism. However, Cohen and Eimicke (1994) charged that the public personnel system in New York City was overregulated and demonstrated that managers in the city indicated support for several reforms including broad banding, elimination of civil service exams, and the establishment of a SES.

While interest in social equity and affirmative action remained high (Frederickson, 1990; Riccucci, 1997; Wise, 1990) and progress toward full representation remained slow (Riccucci & Saidel, 1997), there was an important development in research related to the Civil Rights Act. Research on equality issues also went through a process of reinvention as the scope of research topics greatly expanded. Research on sexual orientation (Lewis, 1997; Thielemann & Stewart, 1996), Asian Americans (Kim, 1993; Kim & Lewis, 1994), prohibitions on religiously mandated clothes (Schachter, 1993), and AIDS (Kfeton & Brewton, 1995) all gained a foothold during the 1990s. There were also changes to gender research. Scholars examined differences in female managerial style (Guy, 1991), the progress made by women in management positions (Guy, 1993; Kelly et al., 1991), the glass ceiling that often prevented women from rising to the high ranks of government (Baldwin & Rothwell, 1993; Bullard & Wright, 1993), and the glass walls that resulted in gender segregation (Miller, Kerr, & Reid, 1999).

A Time for Reflection

The decade that began in the year 2000 represented a period of reflection for the personnel researchers. For some, the inspiration came from important events such as the 30th anniversaries of CRSA (Brook & King, 2008; Lah & Perry, 2008; Perry, 2008; Thompson, 2008) or ROPPA (West, 2010). To another group, it was to breathe new life into classic arguments such as the role of patronage in public personnel (Bearfield, 2009; Hamilton, 2002, 2010). Still, in a few cases, reforms such as the return to at-will employment across a swath of southern states had finally had the chance to take hold. Several researchers turned their eye toward the deregulation of public personnel systems that began in the previous decade. The return of at-will employment and the erosion of traditional merit system protections in states such as Georgia (Nigro & Kellough, 2000), Florida (Bowman & West, 2006), and Texas (Coggburn, 2006), all caught the attention of researchers. Other aspects such as the outsourcing of experiences of individual agencies (Coggburn, 2007) and employee attitudes about reform (Bowman, Gertz, Gertz, & Williams, 2003; Hays & Sowa, 2006) also received attention.

In the wake of 9/11, several large agencies including the Department of Defense and Homeland Security implemented new personnel rules or dramatically changed their personnel rules. The changes invoked a natural comparison to the most recent major reform effort, the CRSA, and caused some to advocate for even greater reforms (Nelson, 2004). Still others raised serious concerns about the changes and argued for research to explore the impact on performance and accountability (Riccucci & Thompson, 2008). Comparisons were made between the 9/11 the CRSA (Brook & King, 2008).

Public service motivation, a concept described in the previous section, also generated considerable attention (Perry, Hondeghem, & Wise, 2010). Bright (2005) discovered that public employees with high levels of public sector motivation were more likely to hold management positions and have higher levels of educational attainment. Research has also revealed gender differences in public service motivation. Women are more likely to have high levels of public service motivation, score higher in terms of compassion, and show a stronger attraction to policy making (DeHart-Davis, Marlowe, & Pandey, 2006). There has been little evidence that interest in the area was starting to wane as new research designs (Wright & Grant, 2010) and methodological approaches (Brewer, Selden, & Facer, 2000) were introduced to improve our understanding.

Research related to the Civil Rights Act continued to grow and evolve. Research related to representative bureaucracy has remained central to the study of race and gender. Goode and Baldwin (2005) discovered that organizations with African American personnel directors were more likely to have higher levels of African American representation. Important studies have focused on the representation of women in state agencies, including agency leadership (Bowling, Kelleher, Jones, & Wright, 2006; Saidel & Loscocco, 2005), the representation of women in leadership in non-profit organizations (Pynes, 2000), and explorations of differences in salary between male and female school superintendents (Meier & Wilkins, 2002). Meier, Pennington, and Eller (2005) demonstrated that despite the fact that more women were employed at the Equal Employment Opportunity Committee, the increased representation did not result in an increase of complaints filed by women. Others examined the relationship between presidential ideology and issues such as representation (Naff & Crum, 2000) and discrimination (Bradbury, Battaglio, & Crum, 2010).

Speaking to the evolution of research in this area, recent articles suggest a transition from affirmative action/equal opportunity research toward the issue of diversity management. Research on the success of diversity management programs (Pitts, 2006; Pitts & Wise, 2010) and the messages sent by public organizations through their websites about diversity (Rubaii-Barrett & Wise, 2007) indicate that researchers have started to think about the issue much more broadly than they had in the past. The expansion of beyond “Race/ Ethnicity, Sex/Gender” continued with research on sexual orientation (Colvin, 2000), disability (Bradbury, 2007), age (Jung, Moon, & Hahm, 2007), and gender identity (Colvin, 2007). In addition, research on the advancement of women and people of color in the workplace (Newman, 1994; Riccucci, 2009) and the concept of emotional labor in the work, which speaks to the importance of managing emotions on the job (Guy & Newman, 2004), have also continued to capture the interest of researchers in public administration.

In a what was in some ways a bit of a surprise, the comparative dimension returned in a very real way as research on personnel systems from around the world has its way back into the pages of PAR—and now ROPPA. Much of this work has been driven by an increased interest in China both as a stand-alone subject (Chan, 2003; Chan & Suizhou, 2007) and in comparison to the United States (Tsao & Worthley, 2009). However, studies of systems in smaller countries such as the Caribbean nation and Trinidad and Tobago (Bissessar, 2006) have also been the subject of recent research. It is a development that in many ways symbolizes the strong connection between current research and the roots of this important subfield.

What’s Next?

It is clear that 50 years after the passage of the Civil Rights Act issues of equality, representation, and discrimination have not waned in interest in the eyes of public personnel researchers. In fact, with new challenges on the horizon such as marriage equality, an aging population of baby boomers, and the possibility of immigration reform, study related to the Civil Rights Act remain as salient as ever. Combined with the ongoing attacks on the collective bargaining rights of public workers, the continued deregulation of state and local governments, a concern over public pensions and the salaries of public workers, one can anticipate that the coming decades will be just as productive as those in the recent past.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biography

Domonic A. Bearfield is associate professor of public service and administration at the George Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University. His research focuses on improving the understanding of public sector human resources, ethics, and public management. He describes his work as the examination of race, representation, and reform. His research has appeared in a variety of journals, including Public Administration Review, Public Performance and Management Review, International Journal of Public Administration, and Administrative Theory & Praxis. He is also the coeditor of The Encyclopedia of Public Administration and Public Policy.

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