The Role of Childhood Violence in Adult Victimization Among Women Experiencing Homelessness in Spain

Abstract

Persons experiencing homelessness represent one of the principal manifestations of the phenomenon of social exclusion, with homeless women constituting a group in a particularly vulnerable situation. The article analyzed the experience of violence in childhood and adolescence, and its implications in terms of violence experienced as an adult, in a sample of women experiencing homelessness in Madrid (Spain) (n = 138). All participants were of legal age and had spent the night before the interview in a shelter or other facility for the homeless, on the street, in public spaces or in places not suitable for sleeping. Information was gathered through a structured interview. The results show that the interviewees had experienced a high percentage of physical, psychological, and/or sexual violence, both in their childhood and adolescence and throughout their lives, with a strong correlation between the experience of violence in childhood and the experience of violence in adulthood, particularly sexual assaults, intimate partner violence, and sex work. The experience of childhood sexual abuse among women experiencing homelessness appears to have had particularly negative consequences in adulthood. Public policies, prevention programs, and care mechanisms with a gendered perspective must be implemented, aimed at reducing the number and intensity of situations of violence experienced by women and girls at risk of social exclusion or in a homeless situation.

Keywords

child sexual abuse childhood violence victimization homelessness social exclusion gender

Introduction

The problem of homelessness, despite being a systemic structural issue, is often perceived by society—to a large extent—as an individual character flaw, with a tendency to blame people experiencing homelessness for their situation. Persons experiencing homelessness represent one of the most extreme manifestations of the phenomena of poverty and social exclusion (Leonori et al., 2000) and, among this group, women make up a particularly vulnerable group, with different characteristics, needs and life paths from men (Arangua et al., 2005; Ryan et al., 2009; Vázquez, Panadero, et al., 2019, 2022). In research focused on persons experiencing homelessness, women are usually under-represented, with gender issues among this group under-researched (Mayock & Bretherton, 2016; Pleace, 2016, Suarez et al., 2018).

Various studies have indicated that persons experiencing homelessness are exposed to a large number of situations of violence (physical, psychological, and sexual), quantitatively more numerous than that experienced by the domiciled population, both during childhood and adolescence (Calvo et al., 2022; Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Panadero et al., 2018; Rodríguez-Moreno, Panadero, et al., 2021; Wong & Piliavi, 2001) and throughout their adult lives (Guillén, et al., in press; Rodríguez-Moreno, Roca, et al., 2021; Vázquez & Panadero, 2024; Vázquez, Suarez, et al., 2019; Wenzel et al., 2000). A history of physical and/or sexual abuse during childhood (e.g., Beautrais et al., 1997; Brown et al., 1999; Guillén et al., in press; Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Pompili et al., 2011) and family violence problems (e.g., Beautrais et al., 1997; Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Noble-Carr et al., 2020; Rodriguez-Moreno, Panadero, et al., 2021; Vázquez et al., in press) are life events with particularly serious consequences.

Scientific literature indicates that women experiencing homelessness are exposed to increased levels of physical and sexual violence from very early ages (e.g., Coates & McKenzie-Mohr, 2010; Hatch & Dohrenwend, 2007; Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Rodríguez-Moreno, Panadero, et al., 2021; Sundin & Baguley, 2015; Toro, 2007; Vázquez et al., in press; Zugazaga, 2004), which appears to have a greater likelihood of their falling in a situation of homelessness. Women experiencing homelessness experience higher levels of physical and sexual abuse than women in the general population (Jasinski et al., 2005). Research carried out in various cultural contexts has found that 30% to 75% of women experiencing homelessness have suffered physical (Lenta, Panadero, et al., 2023; Rodríguez-Moreno, Roca, et al., 2021; Stein et al., 2002; Vázquez et al., in press) and/or sexual abuse (Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Noell et al., 2001; Rodríguez-Moreno, Roca, et al., 2021; Tyler & Cauce, 2002; Vázquez et al., in press) in childhood.

This victimization suffered by women experiencing homelessness appears to continue into adult life. Studies completed in various countries highlight the high prevalence of the experience of physical and sexual violence among women experiencing homelessness throughout their lives, particularly with regard to the experience of gender-based violence (Jasinski et al., 2005; Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Rodríguez-Moreno, Roca, et al., 2021; Vázquez, Suarez, et al., 2019; Wenzel et al., 2001). Matulic et al. (2020) and Zabala-Sandoval (2022) have found that, at times, women living in a situation of homelessness will get involved with men who offer them a certain protection in exchange for a subordinated position within the partner relationship, and even sexual exploitation. Rodriguez-Moreno, Roca et al. (2021) indicate that, in Spain, the likelihood of experiencing violence is approximately three times higher among women experiencing homelessness than among men in the same situation. Broll and Huey (2020) found that, in the United States and the United Kingdom, women experiencing homelessness who had experienced multiple forms of victimization (e.g., physical and sexual abuse) in childhood, adulthood, and/or throughout their lives were more likely to experience multiple episodes of homelessness. Also, women living homelessness who had experienced victimization in childhood were more likely to suffer adverse life situations in adulthood, as serious mental health problems (Guillén et al., in press), suicide attempts (Vázquez & Panadero, 2019), substance abuse (Guillén et al., 2020), serious illness (Lenta, Panadero, et al., 2023); separation from children (Vázquez et al., 2020), detentions, or imprisonment (Edalati & Nicholls, 2019; Vázquez et al., 2024).

In Spain, women experiencing homelessness who spent the night on the street, in public spaces, in hostels, or in other care facilities for homeless people represent around 15% to 20% of the total population in this situation (Panadero & Vázquez, in press), even though specific scientific literature on women in situations of homelessness is relatively scarce. This paper aims to study the experience of violence in childhood and adolescence (i.e., physical or psychological abuse, family violence problems, or sexual abuse) and its implications in terms of violence experienced as an adult (i.e., physical violence, sexual assault, intimate partner violence, or sex work) among women in a homeless situation in Madrid (Spain). Also, the paper analyses the relationship between the experience of violence before the age of 18 (i.e., physical or psychological abuse, or sexual abuse) and adverse life situations (i.e., substance abuse, serious illness, serious mental health problems, suicide attempts, separation from children, detention, arrests, or imprisonment) that make it possible to assess whether or not the women who have experienced violence present a particular situation of vulnerability.

Method

Participants

Research was carried out in Madrid (Spain) based on the data provided by women experiencing homelessness (n = 136). All participants were of legal age (18 years old) and had spent the night before the interview in a shelter or other facility for the homeless, on the street, in public spaces or in places not suitable for sleeping (abandoned buildings, underground spaces, bus stations, etc.). Due to the relatively small number of homeless women who spent the night in shelters, in supervised accommodation, in the street or in public spaces, all the women who were contacted who met the criteria for inclusion in the sample were asked to participate in the study. The main characteristics of the participants are provided in Table 1:

Table 1.

Main Characteristics of the Women Experiencing Homelessness in Madrid (Spain).

Characteristics	% (n)/Mean (SD)
Age (M years, SD)	45.5 (11.370)
Nationality
Spanish	65.4% (89)
Foreign	30.1% (41)
Both	4.4% (6)
Completed education
No education	8.8% (12)
Incomplete primary education	12.5% (17)
Primary education (up to 14 years old)	33.1% (45)
Secondary education (up to 18 years old)	19.1% (26)
Higher non-university education	8.8% (12)
University education	17.6% (24)
Has had children
Yes	61.0% (83)
No	39.0% (53)
Number of children (M children, SD)	1.3 (1.476)
Age when the first child was born (M years, SD)	21.8 (5.320)
Slept in one of the following places last month
In the street	11.8% (16)
In an unsuitable place	6.6% (9)
In a shelter	82.4% (112)
Total months homeless adding up all the episodes (M months, SD)	75.1 (90.939)

The women experiencing homelessness interviewed in Madrid had an average age of more than 45 years, the majority were of Spanish nationality and the majority spent the night in shelters. Over half had children, at an average age of 22. Twenty-one percent of those interviewed had not completed primary education, while 18% indicated that they had received university education. The average time spent in a situation of homelessness among the women interviewed, adding up all episodes, was around 6 years.

Procedures

The research has received institutional review board (IRB) approval by Comité de Ética de la Investigación y de Experimentación Animal (Research Ethics and Animal Experimentation Committee) of the University of Alcalá (CEI Code: CEIP/2021/2/027). The women interviewed were recruited in shelters and drop-in centers for persons experiencing homelessness, on the streets and in public spaces. All the facilities in the “Network of care centres for people living homeless” in Madrid which worked with women were contacted to gain access to the participants. The shelters and drop-in centers provided places that ensured the interviewees’ comfort, safety, and privacy when the interviews were conducted. Occasionally, if the women wished, an appointment was made to meet and interview them somewhere else (in a cafeteria, park, mall, etc.). For women living in the street and in public spaces, outreach teams provided the location and facilitated contact with the interviewees. The interviews with women in street scenarios were conducted in cafeterias, fast food restaurants, parks, malls, etc. Places that provided the interviewees with comfort, safety, and privacy were sought.

After contacting each of the women, the purpose of the research and the processing that their data would undergo was explained to them, after which their informed consent to participate was requested. A structured interview was used for data collection, which made it possible to overcome any possible problems related to reading and/or comprehension difficulties among the interviewees. The interview paid special attention to issues that affect women in a special way, mainly related to suffering from specific stressful life events (e.g., sexual assaults, sex work, and unwanted pregnancies), women’s health issues, working circumstances, gender-based violence, or motherhood. The structured interview collected information on 1,227 variables, and lasted between 45 and 80 min. No incentive was offered to participants, and interviewees could leave the study and withdraw their data at any time if they felt uncomfortable. The interviews were conducted by four graduates in psychology with experience in researches of similar characteristics carried out with people in social exclusion using very similar structured interviews. The interviewers spoke Spanish and English, and all the women interviewed spoke enough Spanish and/or English to complete the structured interview. Protocols for the management of participant distress were developed and discussed with participants prior to their interview.

Data Analysis

The compilation and processing of the database were carried out using the SPSS 22 statistical analysis and data management system, along with Stata 16 software. In order to draw comparisons, a Chi-squared test was used for nominal variables, with Student’s T-tests used for independent samples in the case of continuous variables. Effect sizes were also calculated using Cohen’s d for quantitative variables and the Phi coefficient (φ) for nominal variables. In order to analyze existing relationships between different situations of violence experienced by the participants, a Path Analysis was carried out using Structural Equation Modeling. A distinction was made between violence experienced before the age of 18 (sexual, physical, or psychological abuse, and family violence) and situations of violence experienced throughout their lives (sex work, sexual assault 18 years and older, intimate partner violence, and physical violence 18 years and older). All variables included in the model were dichotomous, taking the value “1” if a specific situation of violence had been experienced and “0” if not. Finally, the risk of experiencing different life situations was analyzed between women who had “suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18” and those who had not experienced this, and between women who had “suffered from physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18” and those who had not. We computed the odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals by standard methods.

Results

As we can see in Table 2, more than 40% of the women interviewed had experienced physical and/or psychological abuse during their childhood and adolescence and had experienced violence problems in their families, starting at an average age of 7 to 8 years. Likewise, almost a third of those interviewed had experienced sexual abuse before the age of 18, starting at an average age of 10. Both physical or psychological abuse and sexual abuse before the age of 18 were principally perpetrated by a member of the women’s families.

Table 2.

Violence Experienced by Women Experiencing Homelessness in Madrid (Spain) Before the Age of 18 and the Age at Which They Experienced It for the First Time.

Violence Experienced Before the Age of 18	% (n)	Mean Age at Which It Happened for the First Time (years) (SD)
Family violence problems	40.3 (54)	6.6 (SD = 4.12)
Physical or psychological abuse	41.8 (56)	8.2 (SD = 4.66)
Psychological abuse perpetrated by a family member	33.8 (45)	8.3 (SD = 4.67)
Psychological abuse perpetrated by someone outside the family	8.3 (11)	8.1 (SD = 5.48)
Physical abuse perpetrated by a family member	27.8 (37)	8.5 (SD = 4.74)
Physical abuse perpetrated by someone outside the family	8.3 (11)	8.7 (SD = 4.92)
Sexual abuse	30.6 (41)	10.3 (SD = 4.18)
Sexual abuse perpetrated by a family member	21.1 (28)	10.0 (SD = 4.74)
Sexual abuse perpetrated by someone outside the family	12.8 (17)	10.8 (SD = 4.11)

Twenty-two percent (30) of the interviewees indicated having experienced (both) “physical or psychological abuse” and “sexual abuse” before the age of 18. Forty-nine percent (67) stated that they had experienced “physical or psychological abuse” or “sexual abuse” (at least one) before the age of 18.

As we can see in Table 3, more than a third of participants had suffered sexual assault 18 years and older, for the first time at an average age of 28, mainly after having found themselves in a situation of homelessness and, to a large extent, perpetrated by people outside of their families. Likewise, 60% of those interviewed had experienced intimate partner violence and more than half had suffered physical violence 18 years and older, in both cases for the first time at an average age of 29 and mainly after finding themselves in a situation of homelessness. Eighteen percent of those interviewed had performed sex work.

Table 3.

Violence Experienced by Women Experiencing Homelessness in Madrid (Spain) During Their Lives.

Violence Experienced	It Has Happened to Her	Mean Age at Which It Happened for the First Time (years) (SD)	It Has Happened Before the First Time Homeless
Violence Experienced	% (n)	Mean (SD)	%* (n)
Sexual assault (18 years and older)	34.1 (45)	28.3 (SD = 8.82)	29.5 (13)
Sexual assault (18 years and older) perpetrated by her partner	15 (20)	30.0 (SD = 8.08)	21.1 (4)
Sexual assault (18 years and older) perpetrated by a member of her family	4.5 (6)	25.4 (SD = 9.54)	0 (0)
Sexual assault (18 years and older) perpetrated by someone outside her family	21.2 (28)	28.0 (SD = 9.63)	44.4 (12)
Intimate partner violence	57.5 (77)	29.5 (SD = 9.49)	27.3 (21)
Physical violence (18 years and older)	53.4 (71)	29.4 (SD = 10.18)	39.4 (28)
Performed sex work	18.6 (26)	—	—

Percentage of those who have ever experienced the indicated violence.

In Figure 1 and Table 4, it can be observed that there is a relationship between having experienced “physical or psychological abuse” before the age of 18 and having experienced “sexual abuse” and “family violence.” Likewise, it has been found that the fact of having experienced “sexual abuse before the age of 18” increases the probability of having performed “sex work” and having experienced “sexual assault (18 years and older).” Furthermore, having experienced “physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18” increases the probability of having experienced “sexual assault (18 years and older)” and “intimate partner violence.” Finally, the probability of suffering “physical violence (18 years and older)” increases if “family violence” is experienced before the age of 18.

Table 4.

Structural Equation Model Coefficients, Standard Error, and Probability of Relationships.

Variable	β	Standard Error	p > \|z\|
Sexual abuse before 18 → Sex work	.192	0.072	.009
Sexual abuse before 18 → Sexual assault over 18	.182	0.096	.060
Physical or psychological abuse before 18 → Sexual assault over 18	.178	0.091	.049
Physical or psychological abuse before 18 → Intimate partner violence	.161	0.086	.066
Family violence before 18 → Physical violence over 18	.192	0.087	.028
Covariances
Sexual abuse before 18 ↔ Physical or psychological abuse before 18	.105	0.021	.000
Sexual abuse before 18 ↔ Family violence before 18	.061	0.020	.003
Physical or psychological abuse before 18 ↔ Family violence before 18	.121	0.023	.000

As indicated in Table 5, the participants who had suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18 had found themselves in a homeless situation for the first time at a lower average age than those who had not been sexually abused (31 years vs. 39 years) and had spent a greater quantity of time in a homeless situation (an average of 10.5 years vs. 4.4 years). Likewise, Table 5 shows that the interviewed women who had suffered physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18 had found themselves in a homeless situation for the first time at a lower average age than those who had not (32 years vs. 40 years) and were more likely to have found themselves in a situation of homelessness on more than one occasion (71.7% vs. 50.0%).

Table 5.

Differences in Time Spent homeless, Number of Times in a Homeless Situation and Age Entered into Homeless Situation According to the Experience of Abuse Among women Experiencing Homelessness in Madrid (Spain).

	Suffered Sexual Abuse Before the Age of 18
Characteristic	Yes (n = 41)	No (n = 93)	t/χ²	d/φ
Time in a homeless situation (M months, SD)	126.7 (122.09)	52.8 (61.22)	3.577***	.869
Age entered into homeless situations (M years, SD)	31.2 (12.26)	39.1 (14.19)	−2.826**	−0.552
Number of times in a homeless situation:			1.672	−0.115
Once	33.3% (13)	44.3% (39)
From 1 to 5 times	28.2% (11)	27.3% (24)
More than 5 times	38.5% (15)	28.4% (25)
	Suffered physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18
	Yes (n = 56)	No (n = 78)	t/χ²	d/φ
Time in a homeless situation (M months, SD)	94.4 (101.95)	62.8 (81.08)	1.920	0.349
Age entered into homeless situations (M years, SD)	32.2 (13.49)	40.0 (14.33)	−3.055**	−0.550
Number of times in a homeless situation:			6.029*	0.218
Once	28.3% (15)	50.0% (37)
From 1 to 5 times	34.0% (18)	23.0% (17)
More than 5 times	37.7% (20)	27.0% (20)

p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01. ***p ≤ .001.

As indicated in Table 6, of the women interviewed who had suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18, the probability of experiencing physical violence 18 years and older was twice as high (OR = 2.10; 95% CI [0.98, 4.50]), while that of experiencing sexual assault (OR = 3.22; [1.49, 6.99]), intimate partner violence (OR = 3.17; [1.40–7.18]), and/or sex work in adulthood (OR = 3.17; [1.30, 7.76]) was three times greater. Likewise, the participants who had suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18 were over two times more likely to have excessively consumed alcohol (OR = 2.51; [1.18, 5.34]), to have had mental health problems (OR = 2.10; [0.99, 4.44]), or suffered serious illness, injury or accident (OR = 2.24; [1.04, 4.81]); over seven times more likely to have abused drugs (OR = 6.74; [3.00, 15.13]); and over nine times more likely to have attempted suicide (OR = 9.23; [3.63, 22.93]). Likewise, the participants who suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18 were over three times more likely to have been separated from a child (OR = 3.52; [1.63, 7.64]). These women were also over three times more likely to have been arrested or detained (OR = 3.63; [1.68, 7.82]), and over two times more likely to have been to prison (OR = 2.40; [1.06, 5.44]).

Table 6.

Differences in Life Situations Suffered Among Women Experiencing Homelessness in Madrid (Spain) According to the Experience of Abuse.

Situations Experienced	Suffered Sexual Abuse Before the Age of 18
Situations Experienced	Yes (n = 41)	No (n = 93)	χ²	Odds Ratio (OR)	95% CI
Sexual assault (18 years and older)	52.5% (21)	25.5% (24)	9.149**	3.224	[1.486, 6.995]
Intimate partner violence	75.6% (31)	49.5% (47)	7.998**	3.166	[1.397, 7.177]
Physical violence (18 years and older)	65.9% (27)	47.9% (45)	3.709	2.100	[0.980, 4.499]
Performed sex work	31.7% (13)	12.8% (12)	6.788**	3.173	[1.297, 7.759]
Drank too much at any point in their life	51.2% (21)	29.5% (28)	5.876*	2.513	[1.181, 5.344]
Abused drugs at any point in their life	68.3% (28)	24.2% (23)	23.746***	6.742	[3.005, 15.128]
Serious illness, injury or accident	65.9% (27)	46.2% (43)	4.389*	2.243	[1.045, 4.812]
Serious mental health problem	51.2% (21)	33.3% (31)	3.833*	2.100	[0.993, 4.441]
Attempted suicide	82.5% (33)	34.0% (32)	26.379***	9.134	[3.628, 22.930]
Separated from a child (adoption, abandonment. . .)	53.7% (23)	24.7% (23)	10.657***	3.524	[1.626, 7.640]
Arrested or detained for a crime	61.0% (25)	30.1% (28)	11.340***	3.627	[1.683, 7.819]
Been in prison	36.6% (15)	19.4% (18)	4.551*	2.404	[1.061, 5.445]
	Suffered physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18
	Yes (n = 56)	No (n = 78)	χ²	Odds ratio (OR)	95% CI
Sexual assault (18 years and older)	48.2% (27)	23.1% (18)	9.235**	3.103	[1.476, 6.525]
Intimate partner violence	63.2% (36)	53.2% (42)	1.352	1.510	[0.753, 3.030
Physical violence (18 years and older)	67.9% (38)	43.0% (34)	8.111**	2.794	[1.365, 5.718]
Performed sex work	33.9% (19)	7.6% (6)	15.060***	6.248	[2.300, 16.974]
	Suffered physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18
	Yes (n = 56)	No (n = 78)	χ²	Odds ratio (OR)	95% CI
Drank too much at any point in their life	50.9% (29)	25.3% (20)	9.386**	3.055	[1.479, 6.134]
Abused drugs at any point in their life	57.9% (33)	22.8% (18)	17.415***	4.660	[2.215, 9.801]
Serious illness, injury or accident	66.1% (37)	42.3% (33)	7.387**	2.656	[1.302, 5.415]
Serious mental health problem	50.0% (28)	30.8% (24)	5.076*	2.250	[1.105, 4.581]
Attempted suicide	66.1% (37)	35.9% (28)	11.882***	3.477	[1.691, 7.152]
Separated from a child (adoption, abandonment. . .)	42.8% (24)	26.9% (21)	3.711*	2.036	[0.983, 4.217]
Arrested or detained for a crime	55.4% (31)	28.2% (22)	10.051**	3.156	[1.534, 6.495]
Been in prison	35.7% (20)	16.7% (13)	6.371**	2.778	[1.238, 6.234]

p ≤ .05. **p ≤ .01. ***p ≤ .001.

Similarly, Table 6 illustrates that the interviewed women experiencing homelessness who had suffered physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18 were three times more likely to have suffered physical violence 18 years and older (OR = 2.79; [1.36, 5.72]) and/or suffered sexual assault 18 years and older (OR = 3.10; [1.48, 6.52]), and over six times more likely to have performed sex work (OR = 6.25; [2.30, 16.97]). Likewise, the participants who had suffered physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18 were three times more likely to have excessively consumed alcohol (OR = 3.05; [1.48, 6.13]) and over four times more likely to have experienced substance misuse (OR = 4.66; [2.21, 9.80]). Furthermore, these women were more than twice as likely to have experienced mental health problems (OR = 2.25; [1.10, 4.58]) or suffered a serious illness, injury or accident (OR = 2.67; [1.30, 5.41]), and were over three times more likely to have attempted suicide (OR = 3.48; 95% CI [1.69, 7.152]). Finally, the participants who had suffered physical or psychological abuse before the age of 18 were twice as likely to have been separated from a child (OR = 2.04; [0.98, 4.22]) and over three times more likely to have been arrested or detained (OR = 3.16; [1.53, 6.49]) and/or have been to prison (OR = 2.78; [1.24, 6.23]).

Discussion and Conclusions

A large percentage of the women experiencing homelessness interviewed in Madrid (Spain) had experienced physical, psychological and/or sexual violence, both in their childhood and adolescence and throughout their lives, consistent with the findings of studies carried out within various cultural contexts (Calvo et al., 2022; Noell et al., 2001; Panadero et al., 2018; Rodríguez-Moreno, Panadero, et al., 2021; Tyler & Cauce, 2002; Vázquez et al., in press; Wenzel et al., 2000; Wong & Piliavi, 2001). In Spain, women experiencing homelessness are exposed to far more violent situations than their male counterparts (Rodríguez-Moreno, Roca et al., 2021) or women in the general Spanish population (Delegación Gobierno para la Violencia de Género, 2015). The women interviewed had experienced multiple situations of violence from very early ages (7–10 years), mainly perpetrated by people within their families. Unfortunately, falling victim to these situations from early ages can impact the subsequent slide into homelessness, remaining homeless and the incidence of “revolving-door” homelessness (Broll & Huey, 2020; Rodríguez-Moreno, Panadero, et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2008).

Various studies indicate that a history of physical and/or sexual abuse during childhood (e.g., Beautrais et al., 1997; Brown et al., 1999; Guillén et al., in press; Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Pompili et al., 2011) and family violence problems (e.g., Beautrais et al., 1997; Lenta, Di Iorio, et al., 2023; Noble-Carr et al., 2020; Rodriguez-Moreno, Panadero, et al., 2021; Vázquez et al., in press) are stressful life events with particularly serious consequences when experienced in the early years of life. Among the women interviewed in Madrid, victims of childhood abuse—largely perpetrated by people within their families—appeared to develop a greater number of risk behaviors during adulthood, with a prominent association with very dysfunctional contexts and with a high percentage experiencing circumstances such as having been arrested or detained for a crime, imprisonment, substance abuse problems, separation from a child, suffering illness, injury or accidents, or attempting suicide. Likewise, female victims of childhood abuse were more likely to have experienced physical violence, sexual violence, and intimate partner violence in their adult lives, as well as being more likely to have performed sex work. These aspects are particularly accentuated among those interviewees who had experienced sexual violence during their childhood.

Situations of victimization appear to be particularly concentrated in certain women, as we found that a substantial percentage of the women interviewed had been victims of different types of violence during their childhood. Growing up in family contexts impacted by different types of violence appears to lead to victimization (Edalati & Nicholls, 2019; Rivas et al., 2020). As such, 22% of those interviewed had experienced both sexual and physical or psychological abuse, largely—though not exclusively—from members of their family. Likewise, among those interviewed, the fact of having experienced situations of violence during childhood appears to increase the likelihood of experiencing different types of violence as an adult, particularly sexual assault, intimate partner violence or sex work. According to authors like Whitfield (1998), experiencing multiple stressful life events, particularly during childhood and adolescence, may lead to difficulties in acquiring skills that subsequently allow one to establish solid relationships and maintain stable accommodation or a job. Scientific literature has highlighted the relationship between performing sex work and having experienced sexual, physical, or psychological abuse in childhood (Heerde & Hemphill, 2017; Reid, 2011; Wilson & Butler, 2014; Yuen et al., 2016), as well as problems within the family environment (Reid, 2011; Wilson & Butler, 2014; Yuen et al., 2016). Similarly, having experienced adverse family situations may limit one’s capacity to receive support from their family in crisis situations (Herman et al., 1997; Susser et al., 1987), therefore making it easier to fall into homelessness and influencing the likelihood of remaining in this situation for long periods of time.

The experience of serious situations of violence in childhood represents a risk factor for exposure to re-victimizing environments in adulthood (Bellis et al., 2013; Edalati & Nicholls, 2019; Edalati et al., 2015), such as the situation of homelessness itself. In this regard, among the women interviewed, the fact of having suffered physical, psychological, and/or sexual abuse before the age of 18 is associated with finding oneself in a homeless situation at earlier ages. Likewise, having suffered physical or psychological abuse in childhood was found to be related with a greater incidence of “revolving-door” homelessness, while suffering from sexual abuse was found to correlate with a greater quantity of time spent in a homeless situation.

Among the various situations of childhood violence, the experience of sexual abuse among women experiencing homelessness seems to have had particularly negative consequences in adulthood. As such, as indicated in Table 5, the women experiencing homelessness in Madrid who had experienced this type of abuse had found themselves in a homelessness situation for the first time at a lower average age and had spent a greater quantity of time in a homelessness situation. Also, as indicated in Table 6, the interviewees who had experienced sexual abuse were twice as likely to have suffered physical or mental health problems and/or problematic alcohol consumption and were seven times more likely to misuse drugs. Various studies (Aubry et al., 2012; Caton et al., 2005; Fazel et al., 2008; Greenberg & Rosenheck, 2009; Guillén et al., 2020; Toro, 2007) have indicated that the consumption of substances represents a factor with a significant effect on a person’s becoming and remaining homeless. Likewise, the women experiencing homelessness who had suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18 were four times more likely to have been arrested or detained, twice as likely to have been to prison, and three times more likely to have performed sex work and have been separated from a child. Furthermore, the women interviewed who had suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18 were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence before the age of 18 and three times as likely to have suffered sexual assault, intimate partner violence, and/or sex work in adulthood. Finally, it should be noted that women experiencing homelessness who had suffered sexual abuse before the age of 18 were nine times as likely to have attempted suicide. This data aligns with various studies that have found that childhood sexual abuse is consistently associated with an increased risk of suicide attempts (Ng et al., 2018).

The limitations of this study include the fact that there was no randomized or stratified selection of the women interviewed, and it was impossible to interview the women living homeless who had serious problems related to cognitive impairments and/or excessive consumption of alcohol and drugs. Accordingly, it is no possible to guarantee the representativeness of the sample, despite the fact that the women interviewed account for a significantly large percentage of the total number of women living homeless in Madrid. Furthermore, the structured interview used had the characteristic limitations of self-report techniques, and this is a cross-sectional study design, and caution must therefore be exercised when trying to establish causal relationships. Other limitations of the study were that in the collection of information there was no distinction between experienced “physical abuse before 18” and experienced “psychological abuse before 18,” and that due to lack of sufficient information it has not been possible to analyze the existence of differences within the sample based on characteristics of diversity as LGBTIQ+ identity, ethnicity, or racialization. It would therefore be important in future research to analyze separately physical abuse and psychological abuse before 18, and to study issues as impaired or neglectful parenting and the differences based on characteristics of diversity as LGBTIQ+ identity, ethnicity, or racialization. Finally, it should also be noted that the study is limited to Madrid, Spain, which means that it is difficult to generalize its results to other contexts.

To combat a systemic structural problem like homelessness, appropriate redistribution of resources must be ensured, as well as providing access to and maintaining stable housing for vulnerable groups (Panadero & Vázquez, in press). Furthermore, it is important that policies, prevention programs, and care mechanisms with a gendered perspective are implemented, making it possible to reduce the number and intensity of situations of violence experienced by the most vulnerable groups, including women and girls at risk of social exclusion or in a homeless situation.

Footnotes

Data Accessibility Statement

Data available on request from the authors.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: This research was supported by “Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación” of Spain (PID2019-104152GB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033).

Ethics Statement

ORCID iD

José Juan Vázquez

Author Biographies

José Juan Vázquez, PhD, Professor in Social Psychology at the Alcalá University, Spain.

Malena Lenta, PhD, Researcher at CONICET and Associate Professor in Preventive Psychology at the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Adrian Cabrera, PhD, Associate Professor in Economy at Alcalá University, Spain.

Sonia Panadero, PhD, Professor in Psychological Assessment at the Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.

References

Arangua

Andersen

Gelberg

(2005). The health circumstances of homeless women in the United States. International Journal of Mental Health, 34(2), 62–92. http://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2005.11043398

Aubry

Klodawsky

Coulombe

(2012). Comparing the housing trajectories of different classes within a diverse homeless population. American Journal of Community Psychology, 49(1–2), 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9444-z.

Beautrais

A.L.

Joyce

P.R.

Mulder

R.T.

(1997). Precipitating factors and life events in serious suicide attempts among youths aged 13 to 24 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1543–1551. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0890-8567(09)66563-1

Bellis

M. A.

Lowey

Leckenby

Hughes

Harrison

(2013). Adverse childhood experiences: retrospective study to determine their impact on adult health behaviours and health outcomes in a UK population. Journal of Public Health, 36(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdt038

Broll

Huey

(2020). “Every time I try to get out, I get pushed back”: The role of violent victimization in women’s experience of multiple episodes of homelessness. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(17–18), 3379–3404.

Brown

Cohen

Johnson

J.G.

Smailes

E.M.

(1999). Childhood abuse and neglect: Specificity of effects on adolescents and young adult depression and suicidality. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1490–1496. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199912000-00009

Calvo

Watts

Panadero

Giralt

Rived-Ocaña

Carbonell

(2022). The prevalence and nature of violence against women experiencing homelessness: A quantitative study. Violence Against Women, 28(6–7), 1464–1482. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012211022780

Caton

C. L.

Dominguez

Schanzer

Hasin

D. S.

Shrout

P. E.

Felix

McQuistion

Opler

L. A.

Hsu

(2005). Risk factors for long-term homelessness: Findings from a longitudinal study of first-time homeless single adults. American Journal of Public Health, 95(10), 1753–1759. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2005.063321

Coates

McKenzie-Mohr

(2010). Out of the frying pan, into the fire: Trauma in the lives of homeless youth prior to and during homelessness. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 37, 65–98.

10.

Delegación Gobierno para la Violencia de Género (2015). Macroencuesta de Violencia contra la Mujer 2015. Ministerio de Sanidad, Política Social e Igualdad: Madrid

11.

Edalati

Nicholls

T. L.

(2019). Childhood maltreatment and the risk for criminal justice involvement and victimization among homeless individuals: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 20(3), 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017708783

12.

Edalati

Krausz

Schütz

C. G.

(2015). Childhood maltreatment and revictimization in a homeless population. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(14), 2492–2512. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515576972

13.

Fazel

Khosla

Doll

Geddes

(2008). The prevalence of mental disorders among the homeless in western countries: Systematic review and meta-regression analysis. PLoS Medicine, 5(12), e225. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050225

14.

Greenberg

G. A.

Rosenheck

R. A.

(2009). Correlates of past homeless in the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Adm Policy Ment Health, 37, 357–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-009-0243-x

15.

Guillén

A. I.

Marín

Panadero

Vázquez

J. J.

(2020). Substance use, stressful life events and mental health: A longitudinal study among homeless women in Madrid (Spain). Addictive Behaviors, 103, 106246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106246

16.

Guillén

A. I.

Panadero

Vázquez

J.J.

(in press). The effects of traumatic events on mental health among women experiencing homelessness: A longitudinal study. Violence Against Women. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012231178002

17.

Hatch

S. L.

Dohrenwend

B. P.

(2007). Distribution of traumatic and other stressful life events by race/ethnicity, gender, SES, and age: A review of the research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 40, 313–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9134-z

18.

Heerde

J. A.

Hemphill

S. A.

(2017). The role of risk and protective factors in the modification of risk for sexual victimization, sexual risk behaviors, and survival sex among homeless youth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 14(2), 150–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1473

19.

Herman

D. B.

Susser

E. S.

Struening

E. L.

Link

B. L.

(1997). Adverse childhood experiences: are they risk factors for adult homelessness? American Journal of Public Health, 87(2), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.87.2.249

20.

Jasinski

J. L.

Wesely

J. K.

Mustaine

Wright

J. D.

(2005). The experience of violence in the lives of homeless women: A Research Report (Report for the National Institute of Justice).

21.

Lenta

Panadero

Cabrera

Vázquez

J.J.

(2023). Health situation and perceived health status among women experiencing homelessness: A longitudinal study in Spain. Public Health Nursing, 40(1), 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.13130

22.

Lenta

Di Iorio

Vázquez

J. J.

(2023). Stressful life events among women living homelessness in Argentina. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 28(6), 522–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2022.2115206.

23.

Leonori

Muñoz

Vázquez

J.J.

Bravo

Nuche

Brandt

Bento

Horenbek

(2000). The mental health and social exclusion European network: A research activity report on European homeless citizens. European Psychologist, 5(3), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1027//1016-9040.5.3.245.

24.

Matulic

Munté

De Vicente

(2020). Sinhogarismo Femenino: Una aproximación a la intersección entre género, edad y procesos migratorios. Research on Ageing and Social Policy, 8(1), 57–85. https://doi.org/10.4471/rasp.2020.4724

25.

Mayock

Bretherton

(2016). Women’s homelessness in Europe. Palgrave Macmillan

26.

Q. X.

Yong

B. Z. J.

C. Y. X.

Lim

D. Y.

Yeo

W. S.

(2018). Early life sexual abuse is associated with increased suicide attempts: An update meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 99, 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.02.001

27.

Noble-Carr

Moore

McArthur

(2020). Children’s experiences and needs in relation to domestic and family violence: Findings from a meta-synthesis. Child & Family Social Work, 25(1), 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12645

28.

Noell

Rohde

Seeley

Ochs

(2001). Childhood sexual abuse, adolescent sexual coercion and sexually transmitted infection acquisition among homeless female adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(1), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00223-4.

29.

Panadero

Martín

R. M.

Vázquez

J. J.

(2018). Suicide attempts and stressful life events among homeless people in Madrid (Spain). Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 28(4), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2351

30.

Panadero

Vázquez

J.J.

(in press). Victimization and discrimination: Forgotten variables in evaluating the results of the “Housing First” model for persons experiencing homelessness. Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2022.2159617

31.

Pleace

(2016). Exclusion by definition: The under-representation of women in European homelessness statistics. In Mayock

Bretherton

(Ed.), Women’s homelessness in Europe (pp. 105–126). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54516-9_5

32.

Pompili

Innamorati

Szanto

Di Vittorio

Conwell

Lester

Amore

(2011). Life events as precipitants of suicide attempts among first-time suicide attempters, repeaters, and non-attempters. Psychiatry Research, 186, 300–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.09.003

33.

Reid

J. A.

(2011). An exploratory model of girls’ vulnerability to commercial sexual exploitation in prostitution. Child Maltreatment, 16(2), 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559511404700

34.

Rivas

Bonilla

Vázquez

J.J.

(2020). Consequences of the exposure to abuse in the family of origin among victims of intimate partner violence in Nicaragua. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 90(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000374.

35.

Rodríguez-Moreno

Panadero

Vázquez

J. J.

(2021). The role of stressful life events among women experiencing homelessness: An intragroup analysis. American Journal of Community Psychology, 67(3–4), 380–391. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12480.

36.

Rodríguez-Moreno

Roca

Panadero

Vázquez

J. J.

(2021). Differences in stressful life events between men and women experiencing homelessness. Journal of Community Psychology, 49(2), 375–389. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22465

37.

Ryan

G. W.

Stern

S. A.

Hilton

Tucker

J. S.

Kennedy

D. P.

Golinelli

Wenzel

S. L.

(2009). When, where, why and with whom homeless women engage in risky sexual behaviors: A framework for understanding complex and varied decision-making processes. Sex Roles, 61(7–8), 536–553. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9610-z

38.

Stein

J. A.

Leslie

M. B.

Nyamathi

(2002). Relative contributions of parent substance use and childhood maltreatment to chronic homelessness, depression, and substance abuse problems among homeless women: Mediating roles of self-esteem and abuse in adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26(10), 1011–1027. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00382-4

39.

Suarez

Berrios

Bonilla

Vázquez

J.J.

(2018). Homeless people in Nicaragua: A point-in-time count in León. Journal of International Development, 30(1), 155–158. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3303.

40.

Sundin

E. C.

Baguley

(2015). Prevalence of childhood abuse among people who are homeless in Western countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50, 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0937-6

41.

Susser

Struening

E. L.

Conover

(1987). Childhood experiences of homeless men. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(12), 1599–1601. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.12.1599

42.

Taylor

C. A.

Boris

N. W.

Heller

S. S.

Clum

G. A.

Rice

J. C.

Zeanah

C. H.

(2008). Cumulative experiences of violence among high-risk urban youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(11), 1618–1635. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508314323

43.

Toro

P. A.

(2007). Toward an international understanding of homelessness. Journal of Social Issues, 63(3), 461–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00519.x

44.

Tyler

K. A.

Cauce

A. M.

(2002). Perpetrators of early physical and sexual abuse among homeless and runaway adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26(12), 1261–1274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00413-1.

45.

Vázquez

J. J.

Berrios

Recalde-Esnoz

(in press). Role of stressful life events in homelessness in Nicaragua: An intragroup analysis in a low-income country. Journal of Social Distress and Homelessness. https://doi.org/10.1080/10530789.2022.2069407s://doi.org/10.1080/1053

46.

Vázquez

J. J.

Cabrera

Panadero

(2024). Involvement in the criminal justice system and incarceration among women and men living homeless in Spain. Women & Criminal Justice, 34(1), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2021.1994102

47.

Vázquez

J. J.

Cabrera

Panadero

(2022). Evolution of the accommodation situation among women living homeless in Madrid, Spain: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 9(2), 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000601.

48.

Vázquez

J. J.

Panadero

(2019). Suicidal attempts and stressful life events among women in a homeless situation in Madrid (Spain). American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 89(2), 304–311. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000387

49.

Vázquez

J. J.

Panadero

(2024). Income and state benefits for women living homeless in Madrid, Spain. Housing Policy Debate, 34(1), 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2021.1915358

50.

Vázquez

J.J.

Panadero

Pascual

(2019). The particularly vulnerable situation of women living homeless in Madrid (Spain). Spanish Journal of Psychology, 22, e52. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2019.58.

51.

Vázquez

J.J.

Piqueras

Panadero

(2020). Mothers living homeless in Madrid (Spain): Characteristics, vulnerabilities and relationships with their children. Child & Family Social Work, 25(4), 904–914. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12775

52.

Vázquez

J.J.

Suarez

Berrios

Panadero

(2019). Stressful life events among homeless people in León (Nicaragua): Quantity, types, timing, and perceived causality. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(1), 176–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22102.

53.

Wenzel

S. L.

Leake

B. D.

Gelberg

(2000). Health of homeless women with recent experience of rape. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 15(4), 265–268

54.

Wenzel

S. L.

Leake

Gelberg

(2001). Risk factors for major violence among homeless women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(8), 739–752. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016008001

55.

Whitfield

C. L.

(1998). Adverse childhood experiences and trauma. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 361–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00013-0

56.

Wilson

Butler

L. D.

(2014). Running a gauntlet: A review of victimization and violence in the pre-entry, post-entry, and peri-/post-exit periods of commercial sexual exploitation. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(5), 494–504. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032977

57.

Wong

Y. I.

Piliavin

(2001). Stressors, resources and distress among homeless persons: A longitudinal analysis. Social Science and Medicine, 52, 1029–1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00209-4

58.

Yuen

W. W. Y.

Tran

Wong

C. K. H.

Holroyd

Tang

C. S. K.

Wong

W. C. W.

(2016). Psychological health and HIV transmission among female sex workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS Care, 28(7), 816–824. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2016.1139038

59.

Zabala-Sandoval

J. D.

(2022). Vulnerabilidades y estrategias de supervivencia de mujeres en situación de calle. Revista CUHSO, 32(2), 167–194.

60.

Zugazaga

(2004). Stressful life event experiences of homeless adults: A comparison of single men, single women, and women with children. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(6), 643–654. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20025.