Emerging Trends in Intimate Partner Rape and Marital/Spousal Rape During the Biennium 2020 and 2021,Including the COVID-19 Pandemic in Greece

Introduction

Domestic violence is an underreported public healthcare concern, which during the COVID-19 pandemic became a global health concern (Kunasagran et al., 2024). The term “domestic violence” is an umbrella term which “includes economic, physical, sexual, emotional, and psychological abuse of children, adults, or elders” (Huecker et al, 2023). Importantly, “intimate partner rape” and “marital (spousal) rape” are forms of domestic rape, which in turn is a form of domestic violence. Gender-based violence and intimate partner violence are the main topics of this study. Gender-based violence is roughly defined as “any harmful act targeted at an individual or group based on their gender” (Ochani et al., 2024). Intimate partner violence “refers to behavior by an intimate partner or ex-partner that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm” (World Health Organization [WHO], 2021). Importantly, “intimate partner violence is a very complex subject and there is currently no universal accepted definition at the international or EU level” (European Institute for Gender Equality [EIGE], 2016). “Overall Member States do not have a specific law related to intimate partner violence (IPV). In its majority Intimate Partner Violence is recognized within the context of Domestic Violence” (EIGE, 2016). Importantly, intimate partner violence may involve children, who can be victims not only of direct domestic violence against them but also of witnessing intimate partner violence, that is, against their parents (Kourti et al., 2023). Furthermore, school closure (as a COVID-19 restriction measure) can render children much more vulnerable to domestic violence (Kourti et al., 2023; Ochieng et al., 2022). It is to be noted that domestic violence against children is presumed to be highly underreported (Kourti et al., 2023). Moreover, it is not entirely surprising that males may be victims of domestic violence. Although males are considered stereotypically perpetrators of domestic violence, domestic violence perpetrated against males is an underestimated, albeit steadily increasing phenomenon (Margherita et al., 2021).

“Intimate partner violence includes stalking, sexual and physical violence, and psychological aggression (Huecker et al, 2023) which occurs between former or current spouses or romantic partners who may or may not be living together in the same household by a current or former partner.” “Intimate partner rape” is one of the forms of “intimate partner violence.” Therefore, when the relationship between perpetrator and victim is matrimonial, the terms “marital” or “spousal” rape are used interchangeably to describe the “intimate partner rape.” Marital rape has been repeatedly recognized as a form of violence against women and has been recognized as violations of human rights and disrespect for human dignity (United Nations, 1993; WHO, 2013a, 2013b, 2014).

An operational definition of rape is not entirely clear and commonly accepted. WHO (2021) defined rape “as the physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a penis, other body part or object” (WHO, 2021, 2023). Federal Bureau of Investigation defined the phenomenon of rape as “[p]enetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim” (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2012, p. 7). In the Greek Penal Code, the definition of rape has recently changed to encompass a wider range of sexual abuse behaviors. Importantly, marital rape has “unique characteristics” and involves “unique dynamics particularly worthy of consideration” (Jaffe et al., 2021). Intimate partner rape may or may not co-occur with other forms of nonsexual physical violence. In a study 49.6% of women in the sample reported having been raped while under the threat of physical violence (Campbell & Alford, 1989). It is argued that the risk for sexual assault is particularly high in women being in a particularly vulnerable stage, that is, due to physical illness or childbirth and breastfeeding (Fulu et al., 2013; Jambola et al., 2020).

Although marital rape has been increasingly recognized as an issue of domestic and sexual violence during the last 20 years, literature related to this topic still remains sparse (Bennice & Resick, 2003). A widespread cognitive construct is that rape is an act of violence committed by strangers, not by a trusted partner (Bennice & Resick, 2003). It is not entirely surprising that marital rape has been constantly and widely tolerated. Marital rape incidences have “remained under the shadow of legal ambiguity in many nations, outside the criminal law and widely tolerated” (Banerjee & Rao, 2022). It is argued that offenders that commit marital rape are motivated by a sense of ownership over the victim rooted in rigid stereotypes of gender inequality (Deosthali et al., 2021). Traditionally, the institution of marriage has been interpreted as exemption in incidences of marital rape (Banerjee & Rao, 2022). Furthermore, traditional gender roles and “honor” cultures (e.g., Asian or Latin-American countries vs. “dignity” cultures, e.g., Western European countries), encourage widely tolerant marital perceptions (Gul & Schuster, 2020).

Not surprisingly, marital rape invalidated by legal arguments dating back to 1736, claiming that the mutual consent granted by spouses included consent to sexual intercourse (Bennice & Resick, 2003). In 1976, most U.S. states began to remove exceptions for marital rape (Klarfeld, 2011). Although marital rape was made a federal crime in 1993, in 2005 across 30 states, there were still marital rape exemptions granted to husbands on the ground that wives’ consent is assumed from the marital contract. For instance, husbands were exempt when they did not have to use force, for example, when their wife was asleep (Bergen & Barnhill, 2006).

Marital rape and rape by an intimate partner are as prevalent as other forms of rape and highly prevalent among female victims of domestic violence (Bennice & Resick, 2003). It has been estimated that nearly one in five women in the United States face a lifetime risk of experiencing sexual violence by an intimate partner (Smith et al., 2018). Similarly, most European countries had included the marital rape exemption in most sexual offence laws until the 1980s to 1990s (Kelly, 2005). According to a review of the legislations of European countries conducted by Amnesty International in 2020, only 15 European countries, out of the 31 reviewed, included laws defining rape as sex without consent (Amnesty International, 2020). In 2006, Bergen and Barnhill stated that one in three of women in the United States had reported forced or unwanted sexual relations with their intimate partner, and that a documented offence of marital rape had occurred in 10% to 14% of married women (Bergen & Barnhill, 2006). Furthermore, in a study conducted in the United States, a 23.1% lifetime sexual abuse committed by a current intimate partner was found (Coker et al., 2000).

In Greece, marital rape is punished according to the Domestic Violence Law (Law 3500/2006) and the Penal Code (article 336, Greek Penal Code-Law 4619/2019). The article 336, Greek Penal Code, states, §1: “Whoever by physical violence or by threat of serious and imminent danger to life or physical integrity, forces another person to take part or tolerate a sexual intercourse is sentenced to at least 10 years imprisonment”; §2: “Sexual intercourse is penetration and actions of the same gravity/importance”; and §4: “Whoever, except for paragraph 1, attempts sexual intercourse without the consent of the victim, is sanctioned to an imprisonment of at least 10 years.” The §4 of the article 336 is a progress in protecting victims of sexual assault. Furthermore, the Greek Parliament ratified by the national Law 4351/2018. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (Istanbul Convention) modified the law on domestic violence (Law 3500/2006) and the Greek Penal Code, stressing, inter alia, the obligation of the state to address all forms of gender-based violence (Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs & General Secretariat for Family Policy and Gender Equality, 2020). The article 36 of the Istanbul Convention (2011) (Council of Europe, 2011), which was ratified by Greece in 2018, defines rape by a lack of consent. The spirit of the Convention with regard to consent is stated explicitly in Article 36 (2): “consent must be given voluntarily as the result of the person’s free will assessed in the context of the surrounding circumstances” (Council of Europe, 2011). The Law 4604/2019 on substantive gender equality, prevention, and combating gender-based violence aimed at eliminating gender inequalities, sexism, and gender-based violence as well as stereotypes. Despite the progress made in recent years, Greek society is still dominated by patriarchy and gender-based stereotypes. Gender-based violence and sexism have not shown a noticeable decline (Lomazzi, 2023; Onassis Foundation, 2020). In Greece, a separate department for dealing with domestic violence started operating in the National General Police Directorate at the end of October 2019, recording all incidents of domestic violence across the country.

The present study is the first study investigating the emerging trends in domestic violence (general and sexual) during the pandemic years 2020 and 2021 in Greece, focusing on intimate partner and marital (spousal) rape. The study is focusing on the complex and underexplored phenomenon of intimate partner and marital (spousal) rape during years 2020 and 2021 in Greece, including the most challenging period of the COVID-19 pandemic. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the imposed COVID-19 mitigation measures further enabled domestic violence, including sexual violence, and reduced the chances of women for help-seeking (Barbara et al., 2022; Kourti et al., 2023; Ochieng et al., 2022; Wake & Kandula, 2022). Furthermore, the study aimed to compare the abovementioned trends in the year 2020 with the abovementioned trends in the year 2021. The reason for this comparison was that the dynamics of the pandemic and its impact on society were different because 2020 was the year of full lockdowns, with 2021 being the year of local lockdowns and vast vaccination campaign. More precisely, the period from March 2020 to June 2020 and the period from November 2020 to May 2021 were periods of severe (initially full and then local) lockdowns, covering a timespan which was globally among the longest-lasting periods of lockdown during the pandemic. Later, in September 2021, mandatory anti-COVID-19 vaccinations for healthcare workers were introduced into the Greek legislation with article 206 of Law No. 4820/2021. As many healthcare workers were suspended from duty, it is most likely that access to comprehensive sexual violence care became much more limited, and therefore, it was difficult for rape victims to seek help. Furthermore, severe restrictions were imposed on all unvaccinated citizens regarding their entry to indoor areas, in the exception of citizens who were vaccinated or recently recovered COVID-19 patients who had been officially diagnosed with COVID-19. Finally, the present study aimed to correlate emerging trends in domestic general violence and rape during the pandemic years 2020 and 2021 in Greece with the factors age, gender, and month of the year. Literature related to the topic of interest of the present study discusses—inter alia—the age of the victims, as presented below (in the Discussion section). Furthermore, as presented above, males may be victims of domestic violence. Moreover, emerging trends in domestic general violence and rape should be investigated month-by-month, because the imposed COVID-19 mitigation measures varied from month to month.

Materials and Methods

Results

Statistical analysis has not indicated a positive correlation between the rate of reported domestic violence per year and the rate of reported domestic rape per year, with the former following an upward trend and the latter maintaining an almost steady course (with a slight decrease). However, a remarkable increase in the rate of reported marital rape per year was noticed.

More specifically, although in 2021 the rate of reported domestic violence per year increased by about 62% compared to 2020, the rate of reported domestic rape per year remained almost stable (with a slight decrease by 4.2%) over the 2 years. In a similar vein, in 2021, the rate of reported domestic violence victims per year increased by about 71% compared to 2020, although the rate of reported domestic rape victims per year remained almost stable over the 2 years, with a slight decrease by 6.2% in 2021. Similarly, the rate of reported victims of intimate partner rape per year remained almost constant within the 2 years under study, with a slight decrease by 6.25% in 2021. Importantly however, in 2021, the rate of reported victims of marital rape per year increased remarkably (by 27.8%, from 13 victims to 18 victims) compared to 2020. Both first lockdown (March to May 2020) and second lockdown (November 2020 to May 2021) ended in the first days of May 2020 and 2021, respectively. The present study compared the first 4 months of each year with the remaining 8 months of the year. In 2021, the rates of reported domestic violence per month and reported domestic rape per month indicated remarkable increase over the period May to December 2021 (ranging from 4.5% to 10.2% and 3.87% to 10.56%, respectively) compared to the first 4 months of the year. Notwithstanding, the rates mentioned above remained almost stable over the year 2020 (ranging from 6.6% to 8.6% and 9.5% to 7.7%, respectively), showing an upward trend during the summer months.

The mean number of reported violent domestic incidents per year was 7,094.5 (SD: 2,378), and the mean number of reported domestic rape incidents per year was 46 (SD: 1). Reported incidents of domestic violence increased by 62% from a prevalence of 50 per 100,000 citizens in 2020 to 82 per 100,000 people in 2021 (victims: 54 per 100,000 citizens in 2020; 93 per 100,000; perpetrators: 53 per 100,000 citizens in 2020; 87 per 100,000 in 2021). Simultaneously, reported domestic rape in Greece between 2020 and 2021 occurred in 0.44 and 0.42 per 100,000 individuals, respectively, yielding a fairly steady and rather uninfluenced prevalence (drop by 4%). In specific, reported domestic rape cases accounted for 0.87% of all reported domestic crimes in 2020. Although reported domestic rape cases remained approximately the same in 2021, its percentage dropped to 0.51% for statistical reasons, namely, due to remarkable increase in other forms of reported domestic violence (Supplemental Tables 1a–1c).

Comparison of data by month disclosed a major (over-twofold) upsurge in reported domestic violence in Greece from August 2021 (peak) (p = .041) and a steadily high occurrence onwards (twofold and over-twofold higher compared to 2020), which was marginally important for November and December 2021 (Supplemental Table 2a and Supplemental Figure 1a). A significant drop in reported domestic rape cases was noted only in January 2021 (p = .017), whereas the occurrence of the crime in every other month during 2020 and 2021 was almost equivalent, peaking again in August for both years. In addition, a marginally significant drop in incidents was noted in September 2020 (Supplemental Table 2b and Supplemental Figure 1a).

Regarding reported domestic rape, victims were substantially more highly attacked when belonging to the age groups of 35 to 45 years (27.96%) and 7 to 18 years of age (16.13%). During 2021, however, there was a statistically significant fourfold decrease in the 7 to 18 age group of victimized minors (p = .016) compared to 2020, whereas the attack on the 35 to 45 age group of adults remained almost stable with a slight increase (Supplemental Table 3a and Supplemental Figure 2a). A clear predominance of females was noted among victims (male:female ratio 1:30; p < .01) across all age groups. Males were not as often attacked in general and their age ranged overall between 7 and 21 years. Bivariate analysis showed that males faced higher odds of being victimized as minors compared to adults (relative risk: 10.4; odds ratio: 11.85; p = .016). In contrast, the relative risk for women was slightly higher to be victimized as adults (relative risk: 1.14; odds ratio: 11.85; p = .016) (Supplemental Table 3b and Supplemental Figure 2b).

Regarding reported perpetrators of domestic rape, one in three were aged between 35 and 45 years (33%) and one in four belonged in the age group of 45 to 60 (25.3%). Compared to 2020, in 2021, a significant decrease was noted in the number of perpetrators in the age group of 18 to 21 years (p = .039) (Supplemental Table 3c and Supplemental Figure 2c).

It was disclosed, however, that reported marital rape was the leading proportion of reported domestic rape cases in Greece accounting for one-third of cases of domestic rape (33.3%), following an upward trend (increase by 28%) from 2020 to 2021 (p = .10) (Supplemental Table 1a). In specific, the mean number of reported marital rape incidents per year was 15.5 (SD: 2.5). Reported incidents of marital rape increased from a prevalence of 0.12 per 100,000 individuals in 2020 to 0.17 per 100,000 people in 2021. Proportionally, reported marital rape cases accounted for 27.7% of all reported domestic rape crimes in 2020; however, in 2021, this number escalated to 40% (p = .09). Reported marital rape was followed by reported incidents of rape by an ex-partner (24.7%), current intimate partner (16.1%), parent of the victim (11.8%), and ex-spouse (3.2%) (Supplemental Table 4; Supplemental Figure 3).

Discussion

This study is the first study using Greek official nationwide data regarding the incidence of domestic, intimate, and marital rape (reported to official authorities). Greece is generally ranked among the countries with relatively low crime rates, both in interpersonal violence and rape (United Nations Statistics Division [UNSD], 2019; WHO, 2013b; World Population Review, 2023). A rise was observed, however, in reported marital rape cases accounting for 40% of all reported domestic rape crimes in 2021 compared to 27.7% in 2020.

Intimate partner and marital rape are phenomena worthy of serious study in most countries all over the world. Data synthesis deriving from 15 countries indicated that the prevalence of sexual domestic violence increased during the pandemic period 2020–2021 (Thiel et al., 2022). In an Italian study 38.9% of the sample members (women) reported that intimate partner sexual violence increased during the period June to September 2020, with 25.0% having remained stable and in 36.1% having been decreased (Romito et al., 2022). An Iranian study estimated that domestic violence increased by 37.5% during the lockdown period from April to July 2020. The study reported that 60% among all domestic rapes were incidences of marital rape (Bagheri Lankarani et al., 2022). In the United States, a study based on official police data is the sole study presenting police records for the crime of intimate partner rape in detail, which showed a nearly steady trajectory of intimate partner rapes for the specific period from 2019 to 2020 (p = .2) (Pallansch et al., 2022). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC ), United States has a recorded annual victimization rate of 322 intimate partner rapes per 100,000 women (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2003). Studies focusing not only on women but also on men and same-sex relationships were conducted in the United States in 2020. Stephenson et al. (2022) explored intimate partner violence among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men in the United States during the lockdown period March to May 2020. They found that almost half of those reporting victimization experienced intimate partner violence for the first time. Notably, the authors found higher rates of emotional than sexual intimate partner violence (Stephenson et al., 2022). Peitzmeier et al. (2022) noticed that trans/nonbinary gender identity was included among the factors that were more strongly associated with intimate partner violence during lockdown compart to pre-lockdown.

In India, three cross-sectional studies all involving self-reports but with disparate methodologies conducted at different time points during lockdown between 2020 and 2021 yielded findings that, albeit different, reported an increased frequency of various types of domestic violence (including sexual domestic violence) during the pandemic (Indu et al., 2021; Pattojoshi et al., 2021; Sharma & Khokhar, 2022). It is to be noted that a study reported that 57% of sample members who were victims of domestic violence chose to ignore victimization (Sharma & Khokhar, 2022). In Germany, no significant changes in the national prevalence rates of domestic violence were noticed. However, domestic violence against men were noticed (Jung et al., 2020; Kliem et al., 2021). In Bangladesh, an increase in all intimate partner violence subtypes was reported (70% in psychological, 56% in physical, and 51% in sexual violence) (Hamadani et al., 2020; Rashid Soron et al., 2021). Furthermore, a significant overall increase of intimate partner violence (including sexual domestic violence) was reported in Egypt (El-Nimr et al., 2021), as well as in Iraq (Mahmood et al., 2022). On the contrary, an overall decrease in intimate partner violence was recorded in Saudi Arabia from March to June 2020 (Alharbi et al., 2021), as well as in Nigeria during May 2020 (Ojeahere et al., 2022). In these countries, however, there are indications that while the annual intimate partner violence and rape rates are particularly high, the number of incidents reported to authorities is limited (UNSD, 2019; WHO, 2013a, 2013b; Wikipedia, 2023; World Population Review, 2023).

Studies conducted in Australia and Finland reported evidence of seasonal variation in rates of domestic violence incidents (Braaf & Gilbert, 2007; Koutaniemi & Einiö, 2021). These findings are partly in line with the findings of the present study. In Australia, a study published in 2007 showed an association between reported domestic violence incidents and summer months (Braaf & Gilbert, 2007). In Finland, a study conducted in 2017, search data showed increased search volumes for domestic violence from late autumn to early spring (Koutaniemi & Einiö, 2021). The authors of the present study hypothesized that the different seasonal variations in reported domestic violence incidents might be due to the fact that Australia and Finland have much different climates affecting the social behavior of citizens. Greece in contrast does not have extreme seasonal variations in temperature (Henke & Hsu, 2020; Tiihonen et al., 2017).

Furthermore, in the present study, a significant drop was noted in the age group of perpetrators of 18 to 21 years as well as juvenile victims of reported domestic rape in 2021 compared to 2020. These changes in age patterns can possibly be explained by the fact that in 2020 educational settings remained closed for a longer period overall compared to 2021. This possible explanation is in line with a study conducted in the United States (Rebbe et al., 2022). According to the present study findings, victims were substantially more highly attacked when belonging to the age group of 35 to 45 years. An Italian study conducted in 2020 found that the majority of victims of domestic violence were aged between 36 and 45 years (Romito et al., 2022). This finding is approximately in line with the findings of a literature review (Wake & Kandula, 2022). Note, however, that results of the review should be interpreted with caution because the majority of reviewed studies were conducted with online surveys, with study samples and inclusion criteria varying widely across them (Wake & Kandula, 2022). Furthermore, in the present study, juvenile victims of domestic rape were identified 1 in 4 cases in 2020 (the year of full lockdowns) and 1 in 15 cases in 2021 (the year of local lockdowns and vaccinations). It is argued that age of victims is included among the commonly accepted factors affecting gender-based violence against women during the COVID-19 period (Ostadtaghizadeh et al., 2023). Ochieng et al. (2022) found that in Kenya, although reported cases of sexual violence increased in women of all ages during the COVID-19 lockdown, among women aged 10 to 17 years, reported cases of sexual violence more than doubled. Kourti et al. (2023) conducted a systematic review and noticed high levels of fear of intimate partner violence among Australian women, especially those of 25 to 34 years old, over the first months of lockdown. Finally, re-pandemic studies from the sub-Saharan Africa have shown rates of sexual and physical intimate partner violence to increase with age up to the age group of 30s and to be highest among married women (MDHS, 2011).

In the years 2020 and 2021, the present study noticed small numbers of reported domestic rape incidents (including intimate partner rape incidents) compared to the numbers of reported domestic violence incidences. As many domestic sexual violence incidents remain unreported for various reasons, the small numbers of reported domestic rape incidences may not reflect the real incidences of the crime. Furthermore, although it is argued that COVID-19 mitigation measures can enable sexual violence (Ochieng et al., 2022), the present study indicated an increase in reported domestic violence and rape rates after the lockdowns, especially the second long-lasting lockdown that ended in May 2021. However, the higher rates of reported domestic rape in after-lockdown months of 2021 may be only apparent because of difficulties in access to official authorities for victims of domestic rape during lockdown periods. Furthermore, movement restrictions were relaxed for vaccinated citizens, especially during the second semester of 2021, thus further reducing the difficulties in access to official authorities for domestic rape victims. Moreover, it is to be noted that literature prior to the COVID-19 pandemic suggests a possible link between increased domestic violence and disasters, as well as post-disaster recovery (Parkinson, 2019). It is to be noticed that in August 2020 and 2021, reported domestic violence rates and reported domestic rape rates reached their peak. This increase may be mainly due to factors different from the COVID-19 pandemic. For instance, it might be due to citizens’ exposure to high environmental temperatures during the summer months and especially in August, which may constitute a reason for crime increase (Henke & Hsu, 2020; Tiihonen et al., 2017).

Ultimately and most importantly, the findings of this study should be interpreted with caution because the crimes of interest are underreported. According to the impression formed by the authors of this study from unofficial sources such as social media, press media, TV, and internet, more and more data indicate that cases of marital rape are largely underreported to official authorities in Greece. Officially recorded cases do not reflect the true prevalence of the phenomenon in the Greek population.

Greece seems to strongly maintain a noticeable degree of tolerance toward marital rape. The results of a cross-sectional study conducted in the Greek healthcare system have shown that “sexual harassment rates are high in the Greek health system, while many victims do not report their experiences to the authorities.” “Male doctors are the most common perpetrators” (Papantoniou, 2021). The results of a qualitative study conducted by Gari et al. (2020) in Greece have shown that students of rural origin and males retained more conservative attitudes involving victim blaming, than students of urban origin and females. The authors stated that these findings were in consistency with previous research findings (Gari et al., 2020). In this regard, the results of a quantitative study conducted from 1997 to 1998 by Chatzifotiou and Dobash (2001) have shown that “Greek women tend to suffer years of violence before they ask for help because of various personal and sociocultural factors. These factors center around feelings of shame and guilt, hope that things will get better, and the concepts of marriage and the family that are of central importance to women’s lives in Greece.”

Furthermore, during the COVID-19 pandemic period, the crime may be underreported to a greater extent due to COVID-19 restrictions-related difficulties to report intimate partner or marital rape cases to official authorities, such as lockdown, social distancing, mandatory vaccination, and overwhelmed healthcare system. Only recently in Greece legal system reviewed including laws for intimate partner violence. In addition, a network of counseling centers and shelters for abused women has been founded. This changing framework made possible the reporting of intimate partner violence cases. It should also be noted that a campaign against domestic violence took place during the COVID-19 period, for example, “unlock your power,” “ask for mask 19,” “violence at home signal for help” (single-handed gesture) that can be used over video-calls to relatives or friends. However, difficulties in accessing counseling centers and shelters for women during the pandemic period should be seen as limited access to emergency lines due to living 24 hr a day with one’s partner.

It is not entirely surprising that marital rape is underreported in many Western and non-Western cultures. In India, sexual violence within marriage, is underreported, as sexual violence legislation used to exempt marital rape until September 2022 (Deosthali et al., 2021; Gupta, 2014). Many women agreed that a husband would have the right to force a wife into sexual intercourse, especially in the absence of physical violence (Krishnan, 2005; Santhya et al., 2007). It is most likely that incidences of consensual marital rape are also underreported in many other countries (Kourti et al., 2023; Russell & Hand, 2017). Therefore, accurate prevalence data for intimate rape are unavailable even to date across all countries in the world (White, 2018). Not surprisingly, in countries that are described as “honor” (vs. “dignity”) cultures, “tolerant judgments of perpetrators are viewed as extensions of traditional gender roles, in which men are expected to be dominant, powerful, and sexually assertive, whereas women are expected to be submissive and passive” (Gul & Schuster, 2020). A meta-analysis of the prevalence of domestic violence in Arab countries revealed high levels of domestic sexual violence (Hawcroft et al., 2019). As marital rape may not involve the use of physical force, it “may not fit societal definitions of rape” (Jaffe et al., 2021). Therefore, victims of marital rape may be less likely to acknowledge their negative experience as a rape (Jaffe et al., 2021). Victims’ self-blaming attitudes, their belief that the assault was not important enough to report and they will not be believed or will be ignored by the authorities, fear of perpetrator’s retribution or their feeling of having no power to leave the relationship are among the main reasons why survivors of marital rape are reluctant to report the assault to official authorities (Bergen & Barnhill, 2006; Russell & Hand, 2017). In the United Kingdom domestic sexual violence was underreported to police authorities (Anderberg et al., 2022; Spence et al., 2022). It is stated that in the United Kingdom, five out of six females and four out of five males who are raped do not report to the police (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary, 2015; Ministry of Justice et al., 2013). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the imposed quarantine restrictions may have further exacerbated the rate of the unreported marital cases (Anderberg et al., 2022). In the United States, marital rape is identified as the most underreported form of sexual assault (National Coalition Against Domestic Violence, 2018). During the period of interest in this study (2020–2021), data indicated a statistically significant decline in police reports in countries of Latin America (Perez-Vincent & Carreras, 2022).

The results of this study should be interpreted with caution when attempting to properly contextualize the findings of a study for the following reasons. First, the legal definition of the concepts “intimate partner rape” and “marital/spousal rape” vary across nations and cultures, as well as international organizations such as the United Nations, the European Commission, and the World Health Organization. Second, the present study reports official police data obtained from final court judgments. Furthermore, it should be highlighted that no comparability with previous data is available. Ultimately, and most importantly, the findings of this study should be cautiously interpreted for yet another reason. As presented above, intimate partner and marital rape is an underreported abusive behavior.

Conclusions

Statistical analysis has not indicated a positive correlation between the rate of reported domestic violence per year and the rate of reported domestic rape per year, with the former following an upward trend and the latter maintaining an almost steady course (with a slight decrease). Similarly, the rate of reported victims of intimate partner rape per year remained almost stable within in the 2 years, with a slight decrease. Importantly however, in 2021, the rate of reported victims of marital rape per year increased remarkably compared to 2020. In 2021, the rates of reported domestic violence per month and reported domestic rape per month indicated remarkable increase over the period May to December 2021 compared to the first 4 months of the year. Notwithstanding, the rates mentioned above remained almost stable over the year 2020 showing an upward trend during the summer months. In August 2020 and 2021, the rate of reported domestic violence and reported domestic rape reached their peak. This increase may be mainly due to factors different from the COVID-19 pandemic, such as high environmental temperatures. Furthermore, the vast majority of victims of domestic rape were females, most of them between the ages of 30 and 45. The ages of adult victims and perpetrators did not show a significant change in 2021 compared to 2020. The perpetrators were also at a similar age. The present study indicated an increase in rates of reported domestic violence and reported domestic rape per month after the lockdowns, especially the second long-lasting lockdown that ended in May 2021. However, the higher rates of reported domestic rape in after-lockdown months of 2021 may be only apparent because of difficulties in access to official authorities for victims of domestic rape during lockdown periods. Furthermore, movement restrictions were relaxed for vaccinated citizens, especially during the second semester of 2021, thus further reducing the difficulties in access to official authorities for victims of domestic rape. Further research is needed to study the epidemic trajectory of intimate partner and marital rape over a much longer timespan to provide further insight into the dynamics surrounding a public health concern.

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