Abstract
Sexual minority persons (e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer) are likely to encounter minority stress, such as discrimination, concealment, expectation of rejection, and internalized heterosexism. Minority stress occurs alongside one’s lifespan and has considerable implications in the context of the career lifespan trajectory. Using the approach of developmental contextualism as a framework to embed minority stress, this article reviews the existing literature regarding facets of minority stress across the career lifespan trajectory and provides a conceptualization on how to incorporate minority stress into affirmative career appraisal, intervention, and research practices.
The minority stress framework postulates that tensions emerge when the values of sexual minority persons (e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer [LGBQ]) are in a state of conflict with the values of the dominant heteronormative culture, leading to significant life strains and burdens (Meyer, 1995, 2003). Minority stress has been demonstrated to impact sexual minority persons across the lifespan trajectory (Chen, Androsiglio, & Ng, 2010), and it is plausible that minority stress could also influence the career-lifespan development trajectory. Vocational scholars have selectively attended to various facets of minority stress in the workplace (refer to Velez, Moradi, & Brewster, 2013) but have yet to fully conceptualize the entire career-lifespan trajectory from a minority stress framework.
According to Meyer (2003), the underlying assumptions of minority stress include (a) unique and additive adaptations beyond general stressors and coping resources; (b) stressors that are experienced as chronic in a given social space or setting; and (c) stressors that are related to social processes, institutions, and situations. Experiences of discrimination (or distal related stressors) are one particular manifestation of minority stress. Violations of heterosexual normality may lead to direct violence (e.g., physical or sexual assault) against sexual minority persons or experiences of harassment and prejudice due to a deviation from heterosexuality (Herek, 2007). An extension of violence and discrimination includes sexual orientation microaggressions, brief, and everyday ignominies that indicate negative and threatening messages (Sue & Capodilupo, 2007). According to Sue (2010), specific sexual orientation microaggressions consist of being reduced as mere sexual beings, experiencing homophobic maltreatment and blame, being subject to derogatory terminology (e.g., “dyke” or “fag”), and being considered sinful and social deviates.
The experience of minority stress also leads to a variety of intrapersonal responses. According to Meyer (1995, 2003), internalized heterosexism, concealment of one’s sexual identity, and expectation of rejection for having a sexual minority identity are all intrapersonal experiences or proximal related stressors. Heterosexism as an oppressive force that many sexual minority persons endure throughout the lifetime, but the pervasive nature of heterosexism also possesses the propensity to be internalized by the sexual minority individual (Herek, 2007). Internalized heterosexism is associated with difficulties in sexual identity formation, identity management, self-esteem, and reports of increased psychological distress (Szymanski, Kashubeck-West, & Meyer, 2008). As a mechanism for managing the stress associated with an invisible stigmatized identity, sexual minority persons may attempt to avoid prejudice and discrimination by concealing the stigmatized aspect of their identity. However, concealing one’s sexual identity leads to increased shame and lower self-esteem (Herek, 2007). Furthermore, consistently having to conceal one’s sexual identity can result in its own unique stress (Smart & Wegner, 2000) and lead to increased anxiety of being rejected for having a stigmatized identity.
Minority Stress, Developmental Contextualism, and the Career-Lifespan Trajectory
Since minority stress is a significant psychosocial contextual factor that influences the lives of sexual minorities across the lifespan, it could be useful to embed the minority stress framework into a developmental contextualism perspective (Chen et al., 2010). As a metatheory, developmental contextualism maintains that both maturation processes and contextual variables are not independent of one another. Rather, human development is the product of multiple dynamic reciprocities that take place between an individual and their environmental contexts (Ford & Lerner, 1992; Trickett, Barone, & Buchanan, 1996). Both the individual and the environmental contexts that one lives in are considered a single life process that is active, organized, and ever changing (Vondracek & Porfeli, 2002). Thus, it is plausible that the career development experiences of sexual minority persons are products of multiple reciprocal systems between a sexual minority individual and their respective environmental contexts—all in which minority stress is pervasively apparent (Vondracek & Reitzle, 1998). Sexual minority persons will certainly encounter minority stressors across multiple social environmental domains, including work, home, school, church, public transportation, community businesses, health and human service establishments, and recreational settings (Appleby, 2001).
Developmental contextualism asserts that human development takes place within both proximal and distal levels of social contexts. At the proximal level, important relational influences include family, peers, educators, employers, and other significant people, while the distal level includes social, political, and economic influences (Vondracek & Porfeli, 2002). From a developmental contextual perspective, minority stress variables could interject at multiple points during lifespan development, especially given the multiple diverse environments in which sexism and homophobia reside. The career development trajectory of sexual minority persons can be influenced by a lack of family, peer, and social supports (Szymanski & Chung, 2003), harassment and prejudice across educational and workplace settings, as well as discrimination by policies and governing entities (Fassinger, 2008).
Relatedly, the career development experiences of sexual minorities could also be influenced by coping, resilience, and career adaptability (Chung, 2001; Savickas, 2013). Utilizing the perspective of developmental contextualism, since an individual is also a significant contributor to one’s own career development experiences, the manner in which an individual navigates and manages minority stress must also be considered in relation to their career development trajectory. Furthermore, given that sociopolitical contexts have shifted significantly for sexual minority persons across various regions of the United States, developmental contextualism would suggest that the historical impact of stigma on sexual minorities across different developmental generations could also be integral to the career development experiences of sexual minorities (David & Knight, 2008; Vondracek & Porfeli, 2002). As a critical psychosocial contextual factor, the experience of minority stress could significantly influence the career development trajectories of youth and adolescents, adults, and older adults. Each of these are discussed more fully subsequently.
Youth and Adolescence
Minority stress may be intensified if development takes place within an environmental context that is highly stigmatizing and shaming (Fassinger, 2008). Sexual minority youth have to deal with disclosing their sexual orientation to their families, and may have to contend with the fear of parental harassment, rejection, and a lack of family support upon revealing their sexual orientation (D’Augelli, Grossman, & Starks, 2006). Additionally, sexual minority youth may be ostracized by family members, kicked out of the home, as well as verbally, physically, or sexually victimized by parents and family members (Bruce, Stall, Faita, & Campbell, 2007; D’Augelli et al., 2006).
Sexual minority youth often experience verbal and physical harassment and bullying in school, which have been linked to decreased academic achievement, college attendance, and increased truancy rates (Koscow, Palmer, Kull, & Greytak, 2013). In some instances, sexual minority youth must cope with the victimization even before they choose to come out. Toomey, Ryan, Diaz, Card, and Russell (2013) reported that students were often bullied just for being perceived as LGBQ or because they appeared to be gender nonconforming. Negative school environments often lead sexual minority youth to experience higher rates of victimization, lower achievement, and low self-esteem (Koscow et al., 2013). Reflecting on these issues, Birkett, Espelage, and Koenig (2009) discovered that middle school students who identified as “questioning” were more likely to experience bullying, drug use, and were more likely to quit attending school classes. Additionally, Toomey and Russell (2013) found that sexual minority youth were less likely to participate in school athletics and academic clubs than heterosexual counterparts, which are associated with greater achievement and higher social support. In sum, the existing career development literature regarding sexual minority youth supports the notion that the early phases of the career-lifespan trajectory may be stunted by a myriad of minority stressors, particularly stressors of physical harassment, abuse, discrimination, and prejudices.
Adulthood
In relation to minority stress, discrimination in the workplace is the most significant contextual factor to affect sexual minority adults (Chung, 2001; Chung, Williams, & Dispenza, 2009). According to the Human Rights Campaign (2014), more than three out of five American citizens live in jurisdictions in which vocational discrimination due to sexual orientation and gender identity is permitted. Sexual minority persons have been terminated, harassed, turned down for promotions, and have endured violence in the workplace in response to identifying as a sexual minority (Fassinger, 2008; Sue, 2010; Trau & Härtel, 2007).
Additionally, experiencing minority stress is associated with lower job satisfaction, increased psychological distress, and physical health problems among adults (Velez et al., 2013; Waldo, 1999). Choosing not to conceal one’s own sexual minority identity in the workplace is one of the most difficult challenges that sexual minority adults face during their career trajectory (Ragins, Singh, & Cornwell, 2007). Disclosure of sexual orientation is a challenge because it carries an increased opportunity for the experience of discrimination (Trau & Härtel, 2007). Ragins et al. (2007) studied disclosure in the workplace and found that those who reported more fear of disclosure had less positive job career attitudes, received fewer job promotions, and reported more physical stress-related symptoms than those who reported less fear of disclosure.
Sexual minorities are also likely to encounter minority stress when navigating aspects of the work–life interface during adulthood. The current economic trends and sociopolitical issues facing lesbian and gay couples might increase difficulty in the workplace, and sexual minority individuals might experience more financial difficulties due to discrimination and a lack of support in the work environment (Perrone, 2005). To elucidate whether or not minority stressors could have a direct influence on the work–life interface, Dispenza (2015) conducted a cross-sectional study among 170 men in same-sex, dual-earner romantic relationships. Results revealed that internalized heterosexism and the expectation of rejection predicted ratings of relationship adjustment, while expectation of rejection predicted ratings of career development satisfaction.
Older Adulthood
Beyond the age of 65, many individuals consider disengaging from the world of work and potentially retiring out of the work force entirely. Grossman (2008) reported that older sexual minority persons expand their social roles and take on positions in parenting, teaching, and community agencies. As with any population of older adults, older sexual minority persons must contend with chronic illnesses and disability conditions (Fredriksen-Goldsen, Kim, Barkan, Muraco, & Hoy-Ellis, 2013) and also they have to cope with the stigmatization of aging and belonging to a sexual minority status (Chen et al., 2010; Schope, 2005). Grossman, D’Augelli, and O’Connell (2001) studied health-related factors of sexual minority persons between the ages of 60 to 91 living across North America, and found that ratings of loneliness were high among the sample population and that internalized heterosexism and suicidal ideation were higher among men than women. Race also may perpetuate the roles of ageism and negative attitudes toward possessing a sexual minority identity. David and Knight (2008) reported that Black gay and bisexual men were more likely to experience the results of ageism than their White counterparts. They also noted that older Black gay men were likely to report more homonegativity than younger Black gay men and White men.
Finally, the climate of retirement facilities is another concern for aging sexual minority persons (Fish, 2012). In their survey study of 127 older LGB identified adults, Johnson, Jackson, Arnette, and Koffman (2005) reported that 73% of respondents felt like discrimination toward sexual minorities occurred in nursing facilities, while 93% believed this practice could be quelled with diversity training. These findings further indicate that minority stress is an issue that continues to influence the later portion of lifespan development, invading even the experiences of older sexual minority adults.
Minority Stress Framework and Existing Career Development Theories
Although developmental contextualism can be utilized as an overarching approach to account for the influence of minority stress on the career lifespan trajectory for sexual minorities, the minority stress framework can also be employed as a lens to adapt existing theories of career development. Existing career development theories take into consideration the experience of sexual stigma in the lives of sexual minorities (for a review, see Prince, 2013), but the minority stress framework has not yet been fully incorporated into existing theories (Velez et al., 2013). Regarding sexual minority persons, Prince (2013) identified developmental and social cognitive theories of career development as two predominant theoretical clusters that have received considerable attention in the career development literature. Each are discussed more fully subsequently.
Developmental Theories
Developmental theories of career development (e.g., Super, 1990; Super, Savickas, & Super 1996) recognize that both vocational and sexual identities co-occur within complex ecological systems that can be inherently heterosexist and homophobic (Dunkle, 1996). For some, the progression through the career-lifespan trajectory process may be complicated due to difficulties in integrating these components of identity (Prince, 2013). It is possible that implementing one’s self-concept (Super et al., 1996) can become obfuscated, stunted, or even delayed if experiencing discrimination, internalized heterosexism, concealment, and heightened anxiety. For instance, Schmidt and Nilsson (2006) explored whether sexual minority adolescents manage career development–related tasks at a slower pace than youth who did not identify as sexual minorities. Based on a sample of 102 LGB youth, Schmidt and Nilsson (2006) found that the experience of inner sexual identity conflict along with low perception of social support coincided with higher levels of career indecision and decreased career maturity.
In another study conducted with sexual minority high school, college, and graduate students, Schneider and Dimito (2010) found that gay men who experienced high levels of discrimination also perceived fewer career options and reported less satisfaction with their career-related choices. Interestingly, Schnedier and Dimito found that the lesbians in their sample were more likely to identify their sexual identity as a positive factor that opened them to more academic and career-related opportunities. Although not posited by the authors, it is possible that the lesbian women in the sample possessed a level of career adaptability, which is the adequate readiness and resources to cope with the various demands related to their career development trajectories (Savickas, 2013).
Social Cognitive Theories
Heterosexist stereotyping, peer pressure, and lack of social supports could influence the self-efficacy and career-related outcome expectations of sexual minorities (Morrow, Gore, & Campbell, 1996). Whereas prejudice and institutional discrimination could serve as contextual influences proximal to choice-related behaviors, anticipating stigma or internalizing heterosexist beliefs could interfere with developing enduring interests, or reinforcing dysfunctional learning experiences. Lidderdale, Croteau, Anderson, Tovar-Murray, and Davis (2007) averred that workplace sexual identity management is a core issue when understanding the career-related experiences of sexual minority persons. Passing as heterosexual, covering one’s sexual minority status, being implicitly out, and being explicitly out are all sexual identity management strategies that could be used in the workplace (Velez et al., 2013). As such, self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations interact with the workplace environment in order to determine which identity management strategy will be utilized in a particular context (Lidderdale, Croteau, Anderson, Tovar-Murray, & Davis, 2007).
Velez, Moradi, and Brewster (2013) tested the links between workplace heterosexist discrimination, minority stressors, identity management strategies, job satisfaction, and psychological distress among 326 sexual minority adults. They found that avoiding one’s sexual minority identity mediated the relationship between workplace heterosexist discrimination and internalized heterosexism, all leading to higher ratings of psychological distress; whereas being out in the workplace mediated the relationship between workplace heterosexist discrimination and internalized heterosexism, all leading to lower ratings of job satisfaction.
Implications for Appraisal and Career Development Intervention
Chen, Androsiglio, and Ng (2010) described developmental contextualism as an affirmative approach that conceptualizes sexual minority individuals through a developmental lifespan perspective, while attending to the contextual and relational factors that systemically influence their lives. Embedded within a developmental contextual perspective, career counselors could integrate the minority stress framework as a means of appraising, conceptualizing, and applying pertinent career interventions with their sexual minority clients. Relatedly, developmental contextualism permits for the flexibility of integrating minority stress with other theories of career development (e.g., social cognitive and developmental). Most importantly, developmental contextualism allows career counselors the opportunity to address other aspects of contextualized identity variables that influence the career development trajectory, such as race, culture, ethnicity, ability status, and socioeconomic status (Savickas, 2013).
Grounded in the aforementioned literature, we recommend that the following contextualized approaches to career development interventions be considered with sexual minorities: (a) conducting a thorough appraisal of minority stress and psychological processes, (b) implementing affirmative developmental approaches to career interventions, and (c) a specialized focus on enhancing career adaptability and coping responses. Each of these recommendations is discussed more thoroughly. Refer to Figure 1 for a visual depiction of the proposed approach.
Developmental contextual approach to appraisal and career development interventions with sexual minorities.
Appraisal of Minority Stress and Psychological Processes
Originally conceptualized as a strategy for contextualizing mental health–related interventions with sexual minorities, Alessi (2014) explicated an intervention approach that coupled both Meyer’s (2003) theory of minority stress with Hatzenbuehler’s (2009) psychological mediation model. Whereas Meyer’s (2003) theory focuses on distal stressors (e.g., discrimination) and proximal stressors (e.g., internalized homophobia, expectation of rejection, and concealment), Hatzenbuehler’s (2009) approach asserts that psychological processes (e.g., emotional regulation, social/interpersonal, and cognitive) mediate the relationship between minority stressors and psychobehavioral pathological risks. We propose that Alessi’s (2014) approach to conduct a detailed appraisal of minority stressors and psychological processes could be adopted by career counselors working on career development issues with sexual minority persons. Appraisal could take place during formal or informal assessment and testing procedures or throughout the career counseling process. Furthermore, career counselors need to be aware of the various environmental contexts that may have occurred in middle and high school, college, family households, work settings, and various community environments (Appleby, 2001; Szymanski & Chung, 2003).
Appraisal of proximal and distal minority stressors
Career counselors are encouraged to appraise the following: (a) exposure to prejudice, discrimination, and microaggressions across the career-lifespan trajectory (Herek, 2007; Sue, 2010); (b) the degree that one expects to be rejected for his or her sexual orientation; (c) the circumstances that lead one to conceal his or her sexual orientation; and (d) internalized heterosexism. This would allow for an appraisal of specific stress responses and psychological outcomes (e.g., anxiety, depression, and lack of confidence; Sue, 2010), while allowing an opportunity to determine how the stress responses and psychological outcomes have influenced career-related processes (i.e., decision making, skill acquisition, and career exploration). Career counselors could also assess and counter any occupational stereotypes that restrict certain career choices as a result of minority stress (Prince, 2013). Additionally, career counselors should consider focusing on (a) how much anxiety and stress their sexual minority clients experience over potential discrimination and microaggression; (b) how aware clients are of their anxiety and stress, since there are circumstances in which sexual minority persons are not conscious of certain minority stressors; (c) the extent in which their clients may knowingly and unknowingly conceal their sexual orientation; and (d) under which circumstances clients may be willing to disclose their sexual orientation in certain environments.
Appraisal of psychological processes
Hatzenbuehler’s (2009) work should be consulted for details regarding psychological processes. In particular, career counselors are encouraged to appraise (a) emotional dysregulation, (b) cognitive processes, and (c) social and interpersonal functioning of their clients. Career counselors may consider it beneficial to assess any maladaptive tendencies to ruminate, suppress, and distract from negative or uncomfortable emotions, as these could interfere with career-related processes. Emotional dysregulation could directly influence career decision making, since both emotional and personality factors are associated with perceived abilities to execute certain sources of action (Brown, George-Curran, & Smith, 2003; Zunker, 2008). Cognitive processes, such as hopelessness, self-esteem, self-worth, pessimism, and negative self-schema, should all be considered as they too could influence career indecision self-efficacy, values, and perceptions of interests and skills (Braunstein-Bercovitz, Benjamin, Asor, & Lev, 2012). Finally, social and interpersonal functioning (e.g., connection to family of origin, use of social supports, and environmental resources) need to be considered. Specifically, Haldeman (2007) asserted that social connection to an LGBQ community facilitates positive identity development and self-esteem. In particular, connection to social and environmental supports may foster the connection to positive role models in order to emulate success and resiliency to ensure optimal career-lifespan trajectory navigation.
Affirmative Approaches to Career Development Intervention
Youth and adolescents
Schmidt and Nilsson (2006) recommended that both sexual minority identity and career development be conceptualized simultaneously when working with sexual minority youth and adolescent. Providing psychoeducation regarding the experience of minority stress, while assuring age appropriate language based on developmental maturity, may help augment some of the stress of stigma that sexual minority youth and adolescents might experience. Additionally, using gay straight alliance (GSA; http://www.glsen.org/gsa) advisors to help advocate in the context of career may be helpful. GSA advisors could help organize school and community involvement efforts (e.g., big brother/big sister program, visiting colleges, and establishing mentors) with sexual minority youth and adolescents and ensure strong relationships between schools and LGBQ community youth clubs. Finally, utilizing innovative interventions with career development, such as play, sand tray, and art therapy, may help address both minority stress and career development with sexual minority youth and adolescents.
Adulthood
Counselors are encouraged to help their sexual minority clients strategize ways of maneuvering minority stress issues in the workplace. For instance, counselors could help bolster emotional and problem-focused coping resources (Chung et al., 2009) or help their clients process ways of navigating sexual identity management strategies in their respective academic or work environments (Lidderdale et al., 2007). Counselors could also help their sexual minority clients explore new potential workplace settings that are more affirmative toward sexual minorities. Counselors could help their clients explore if places of employment offer same-sex partner benefits, provide sexual minority leadership opportunities, or if companies possess sexual minority–related alliances to help retain and promote sexual minorities in the workplace (such as General Electric).
If working with sexual minority adults who are in same-sex relationships, work and family issues also need to be viewed conjointly (Dispenza, 2015). This may require both the integration of career and couples counseling modalities, in which communication skills, decision-making strategies, and stigma management techniques are explored in order to optimize both career development and romantic relationship functioning (Perrone, 2005). Additionally, exploring role models, encouraging LGBQ community belongingness (e.g., attending pride festivals, LGBQ festivities and events, etc.), and identifying sources of family support may be beneficial for sexual minority persons in same-sex relationships (O’Ryan & McFarland, 2010).
Older adulthood
Although it is assumed that older adults may disengage from work and head into retirement, withdrawal from the vocational realm is not always the case. Sexual minority older adults may decide to reengage in the workforce. If an older adult desires to disengage from work, career counselors may want to help explore issues of retirement, such as leisure activities, health care, finances, caretaking plans, locating affirmative retirement homes and assisted living facilities, and identifying relevant support systems (Fish, 2012). Furthermore, career counselors can help older sexual minority adults by exposing them to social and vocational roles that provide a protective factor against isolation, loneliness, and stigma (David & Knight, 2008; Grossman, D’Augelli, & O’Connell, 2001; Schope, 2005). As a means of empowering older sexual minority adults, one potential recommendation is to facilitate or organize opportunities for older sexual minority adults to mentor younger sexual minority youth, particularly if mentorship involves transgenerational education. Kertzner, Meyer, Frost, and Stirratt (2009) found that 18- to 29-year-old sexual minority persons reported lower levels of social well-being, when compared to older age cohorts. This suggests that young sexual minority adults do not achieve a measure of social fit comparable to older sexual minority persons, but that older sexual minority adults could be a resource in helping to facilitate more social fit and adjustment within younger generations.
Career Adaptability and Coping Responses
Given that minority stress is a form of psychosocial stress, career counselors may find it beneficial to help enhance the career adaptability (Savickas, 2013) of sexual minorities. In particular, career counselors are encouraged to identify, activate, and enhance one’s psychosocial resources for coping and self-regulation with both distal and proximal minority stressors experienced across the career-lifespan trajectory. For instance, career counselors may need to educate and guide sexual minority youth and adolescents toward developing adequate coping skills (e.g., problem solving, reframing, and relaxation), and identifying appropriate school, community, familial, and peer supports in order to manage the stressors associated with the coming out process (Chen et al., 2010; Schmidt & Nilsson, 2006). Zunker (2008) suggests that enhancing personal traits such as optimistic attitudes, perception of controllability, self-acceptance, self-efficacy, and self-esteem may help individuals feel more empowered. Enhancing personality traits may help enhance career adaptability when addressing developmental tasks, work-related transitions, and stress across the career-lifespan trajectory.
As a means of enhancing career adaptability, career counselors are encouraged to attend to various coping responses, especially when assisting sexual minority clients navigate instances and experiences of discrimination and microaggressions. Chung (2001) proposed a coping strategy framework based on the collection of three separate models: (a) vocational choice model, (b) identity management model, and (c) discrimination management model. Chung et al. (2009) validated the coping strategy framework and found support for each of the different models of coping. With regard to vocational choice, participants considered either self-employment, looking for employment settings that welcomed of sexual minorities, or choosing to take risks knowing that they may encounter discrimination by remaining in a particular work setting. According to Chung et al. (2009), identity management strategies were also used as a means of coping in the study, as participants most heavily relied on censoring information about their sexual minority identity, implicitly identifying, and explicitly identifying their sexual orientation in the workplace.
Chung et al. (2009) also revealed that sexual minorities are likely to use three particular means of managing discrimination in the workplace: (a) taking nonassertive stances such as quitting, avoiding discriminatory situations, or amplifying work performance to prevent workplace discrimination; (b) utilizing social supports, such as partner, friends, family, coworkers, or the use of professional mental health counselors; (c) confronting the offense by either seeking out administrative support, taking legal action, defying discrimination policy, or using the media to publicize the discrimination. Therefore, enhancing coping strategies and support systems may prove efficacious and should be integrated in the contexts of career-related intervention with sexual minorities (Lidderdale et al., 2007).
Implications for Research
Developmental contextualism asserts that empowerment is a central component when researching the developmental trajectories of marginalized populations in their respective contexts (Trickett et al., 1996). Studying the career development trajectories of sexual minorities requires sensitive attention to the role that social powers play when crafting research questions and hypotheses, collection and ownership of data, as well as analysis and implications of research findings. In addition to established cross-sectional and in vivo observational designs, scholars and researchers are encouraged to utilize cross-level research designs, quantitative and qualitative longitudinal procedures, and even ethnographic case studies in order to understand the contexts of race and ethnicity as pertinent cultural variables within a bounded system.
First and foremost, process and outcome career-related intervention research with diverse sexual minorities is considerably lacking. As such, both career intervention effectiveness and efficacy with this population are necessary, with emphasis on the influence that minority stressors and coping have on intervention processes and outcomes. Besides evaluating traditional career counseling modalities (e.g., individual or group counseling), psychoeducational outreach programming in schools and community agencies (Trickett et al., 1996) and couples career counseling (Perrone, 2005) should also be evaluated for efficacy and effectiveness. These other career intervention modalities could help reach a broader audience in need of professional services. Additionally, scholars are encouraged to explore the influence that minority stressors have on objective career assessment and appraisal measures. Minority stressors, personality variables, coping, development, and other contextual variables unique to sexual minorities (e.g., Savickas, 2013; Zunker, 2008) could influence response styles on various career-related measures (e.g., interests, values, skills, decision making, etc.).
Second, more scholarly emphasis should also be placed in training and education of career counselors (including graduate students learning to become counselors) working with sexual minorities. Although there has been considerable attention made regarding counselor competence variables working with sexual minorities (Prince, 2013), there has not been much recent attention paid to working with sexual minorities in the context of career counseling and appraisal. With the considerable developmental and diversity that exists within the sexual minority community, it is important to explore how counselors are facilitating career interventions, and what necessary training may be needed to do so effectively.
Furthermore, as an extension of previous research (e.g., Jonson et al., 2005; Ragins, Singh, & Cornwell, 2007; Velez et al., 2013; Waldo, 1999), it is necessary that scholars continue to examine the contextual influences of minority stress on other career development constructs. Scholars should particularly consider career decision self-efficacy, career adaptability, life-role salience, and the development and implementation of values, interests, and skills across the career-lifespan trajectory. Scholars are also highly encouraged to utilize these research implications with transgender identified persons.
Conclusion
Minority stress has the potential to influence the career-lifespan trajectory for sexual minority persons. Beginning with youth and adolescence, sexual minority persons begin to feel the effects that minority stress has on life. Minority stress follows into the career lives of adults and older adulthood, including workplace settings and avocational activities. We advocate that career counselors and scholars take the effects of minority stress across the lifespan trajectory into account when conducting counseling or research with sexual minority persons. Coupled with developmental contextualism, focusing on minority stress could even allow career counselors and scholars to address other aspects of diversity that may impact career development. Finally, we encourage career counselors and scholars to emphasize the importance of affirming sexual minorities. These recommendations are made in the hope of maximizing career potential for all sexual minority individuals.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.