Abstract
Objectives
The current study based on the Stress Process Model investigated the impact of experiences of domestic violence on mental health as well as resilience against negative mental health outcomes among older adults in U.S. during COVID-19.
Method
Participants included 522 older adults (ages 51–80 and older) living in US at the time of the survey. Path analysis using Mplus was employed.
Introduction
During the COVID-19 pandemic, most countries attempted to mitigate the spread of the disease by recommending stay-at-home orders, enforcing business lockdowns, and limiting social gatherings (Havnen et al., 2020). However, for victims of domestic violence, staying at home became a safety risk (Emezue, 2020). The term “domestic violence” encompasses diverse types of violence and abuse that occur in domestic contexts, such as child abuse, elder abuse and intimate partner violence, including emotional, physical, and sexual abuse (Ali et al., 2021). Previous studies have reported that domestic violence escalates during natural disasters as these events can exacerbate financial strains and family conflict (Campbell & Jones, 2016; Piquero et al., 2021). Similarly, the global pandemic created conditions that heightened domestic violence, including worsening economic insecurity, health-related stress, worry, and caregiving burden (Piquero et al., 2021). COVID-19 mitigation policies created additional risks; the comprehensive, long-term restrictions on people’s social and physical activities weakened support networks and limited access to public services (Ashby, 2020; Goh et al., 2020). During the pandemic, victims of domestic violence were even more likely to be isolated and lonely because of the lack of internal and external support systems and networks (Goodman & Epstein, 2020). Although many incidents were likely unreported, several studies have documented that domestic violence surged with COVID-mitigation measures such as lockdowns and stay-at-home orders (Ali et al., 2021; Boserup et al., 2020; Goh et al., 2020), and abusive relationships appear to have worsened (Chang & Levy, 2021; Goh et al., 2020; Makaroun et al., 2020; Moraes et al., 2020). In particular, older adults were at greater risk for domestic violence (Radwan et al., 2020).
Previous research has reported that all types of domestic violence are positively associated with negative health outcomes including anxiety (Arokach, 2006; Malik et al., 2021), depression, and suicidality regardless of the victims’ age or gender (Rahmani et al., 2019; Yoon & Cummings, 2019; Yoon et al., 2020, 2022). However, older victims reportedly suffered considerably higher levels of anxiety during the pandemic (Farhat et al., 2022; Sediri et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Another mental health outcome associated with domestic abuse is loneliness, and domestic violence has been shown to be a predictor of loneliness (Arokach, 2006; Farhat et al., 2022; Lauder et al., 2004).
Loneliness is not an experience of being physically alone, but instead is a feeling of sorrow, or a sense of being disconnected from other people (Arokach, 2006; Goodman & Epstein, 2020). Studies have consistently shown that loneliness has a detrimental influence on mental, cognitive, and physical health (Gaeta & Brydges, 2021; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Loneliness may make victims even more vulnerable during challenging times (Goodman & Epstein, 2020; Tso & Park, 2020). During the COVID-19 era, many older adults were more susceptible to both loneliness and abuse (Rossi et al., 2021; Settersten Jr. et al., 2020). Previous studies have also shown that loneliness tends to directly increase anxiety (Creese et al., 2021; Goodman & Epstein, 2022; McQuaid et al., 2021; Palgi et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). In addition, it has been shown to be a mediator between interpersonal stress, including the spouse, children, and significant others, and anxiety (Aanes et al., 2010). However, scarce research has investigated the possible mediating role of loneliness in the association between domestic violence and anxiety among older adults during the pandemic.
Resilience—the ability to bounce back from adversity or stress (Smith et al., 2008)—may help people sustain and recover their mental health after stressful life events or traumatic experiences such as violence, losing loved ones, loneliness, and health-challenging situations (Chen, 2020; Gerino et al., 2017; Ong et al., 2006; PeConga et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Resilience may lead people to employ effective coping strategies, successfully regulate their stress, and quickly recover from stressful life experiences and apprehension (Ong et al., 2006; PeConga et al., 2020; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). In addition, resilience has been reported as a direct protective factor against negative mental health outcomes such as loneliness and anxiety before and during the pandemic (Igarashi et al., 2021; Killgore et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022; Zhang et al., 2020).
Resilience also has indirect effects as a mediator in the relationship between loneliness and depression (Zhao et al., 2018), between loneliness and frailty among older adults in nursing homes (Zhao & Si, 2021), between depression and psychological health among people with health issues (Liu et al., 2015), between loneliness and mental health among older adults (Gerino et al., 2017), between stress and anxiety, and between health and anxiety among older adults during COVID-19 (Yoon & Choi, 2022). Although older adults have demonstrated higher resilience than younger people during challenging times, including COVID-19 (Carstensen et al., 2020; Palgi et al., 2020; Rossi et al., 2021; Yoon & Choi, 2022), the impacts of domestic violence, loneliness, and resilience among older adults during the pandemic are understudied.
A previous study found that 47% of older women (55 and above) have experienced abuse (Fisher & Regan, 2006). Recent studies have shown that victims of domestic violence include both older males and females (Yoon et al., 2020, 2022). Studies have also shown that adverse relationships have a more destructive impact on older adults than younger people (Birditt et al., 2021; Yoon & Choi, 2022). While abuse against older adults during COVID-19 reportedly surged (Chang & Levy, 2021), to date, research on domestic violence during the pandemic has tended to focus on women (Akel et al., 2022; Ali et al., 2021; Goodman & Epstein, 2020; Maji et al., 2022; Rashidi Fakari et al., 2022; Sediri et al., 2020; Usher et al., 2021), younger adults (Emezue, 2020), and the general elder abuse experience not limited to domestic violence (Chang & Levy, 2021; Han & Mosqueda, 2020). Studies have also focused on caregivers (Makaroun et al., 2020, 2021) and risk factors (Farhat et al., 2022; Piquero et al., 2021; Yunus et al., 2021) rather than on protective factors against mental health outcomes after experiencing abuse. In general, older adults have received relatively little attention as victims of domestic violence and few studies have identified protective factors against domestic violence in later life (Yoon et al., 2022).
Given older populations’ vulnerability both to the COVID-19 virus and violence, more research is needed on domestic violence, including its negative consequences on mental health (Telles et al., 2020) and the factors that can reduce these negative mental health outcomes. A useful framework for this research is the stress process model (SPM) (Pearlin et al., 1981), which describes stressors, psychological stress outcomes, and mediators between stressors and stress outcomes in a connected process. In the SPM, coping skills and social support are characterized as mediators (Pearlin et al., 1981; Yoon & Choi, 2022; Yoon et al., 2022). Additionally, Pearlin and Bierman (2013) elaborated on the stress process that significant life events have a direct effect on mental health outcomes, and the sources of stress are linked to other stressors (Pearlin & Bierman, 2013). In addition, protective factors may reduce the impact of these sources of stress (Pearlin & Bierman, 2013; Pearlin & Johnson, 1977). A previous study based on the SPM also showed that mediating stressors may exist between stressors and mental health outcomes (Mohanty et al., 2022). The present study extends and elaborates the SPM. Using this conceptual model and drawing on previous literature, the current study investigates the impact of domestic violence on mental health among older adults in the U.S. during the COVID-19 pandemic and examines resilience as a protective factor.
Specifically, the following hypotheses are tested: 1. The experience of domestic violence will be positively associated with loneliness and anxiety. 2. The experience of domestic violence will be negatively associated with resilience. 3. The experience of domestic violence will be indirectly associated with anxiety through loneliness and resilience.
The present study is important to increase our understanding of vulnerable older adults who have survived domestic violence during unprecedented times such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Insights drawn from this study can lead to interventions and strategies to effectively intervene or prevent domestic violence and to care for older adults.
Methods
Participants
The current study used the cross-sectional U.S. COVID-19 and family well-being data (second wave) based on survey questionnaires developed by Mohanty and colleagues (Mohanty et al., 2020, 2022). The data were collected using convenience sampling online after accepting electronic consent from March 8, 2021, to April 8, 2021 by Qualtrics in the U.S. The current study sample consists of data only from respondents who were aged 51 and older (range: 51–80 and older) living in the U.S. at the time of the survey. The age range was selected because a considerable number of older adults experience violence after turning 50 years old in the US (Durfee & Goodmark, 2021). The survey was voluntary and anonymous. A total of 522 cases were included in our sample.
Ethical Considerations
The Internal Review Board of the authors’ school in the U.S. approved all study procedures before conducting the study (Protocol #20200417AP02740). The consent form of the online survey clearly stated the study purpose, procedures, confidentiality, potential risk and benefits, and emphasized that participation was voluntary and anonymous. Only participants who consented participated in the online survey.
Measurements
Domestic Violence
An independent variable, domestic violence in the survey, was measured using 14 survey items, including 13 items based on the Composite Abuse Scale (revised) (Ford-Gilboe et al., 2016) and one item was added in the survey asking “Tried to convince my family or friends that I am contagious (COVID-19) when I am not.” (Mohanty et al., 2020, 2022). The Composite Abuse Scale (revised) has been extensively used to measure domestic violence during COVID-19 (Akel et al., 2022; Miranda-Mendizabal et al., 2021). The 14 items were as follows: “Called me by names or told me that I am stupid, crazy, or not good enough,” “Blamed me for causing their violent behavior,” “Shook, pushed, grabbed, or threw me,” “Choked me,” “Threatened to kill me or harm someone close to me,” “Tried to convince my family or friends that I am crazy or tried to turn them against me,” “Tried to convince my family or friends that I am contagious (COVID-19) when I am not,” “Used or threatened to use a knife or gun or other weapons to harm me,” “Forced me or tried to force me to have sex,” “Made me perform sex acts that I did not want to perform,” “Hit me with a fist or object, kicked or bit me,” “Kept me from seeing or talking to my family or friends over the phone or internet,” “Confined or locked me in a room or other space,” and “Kept me from having access to a job, money or financial resources.” If participants experienced any of these 14 actions from their family members or partner during COVID-19, they answered yes (1). If participants had not experienced any of the listed experiences during COVID-19, they answered no (0). If participants answered yes to at least one of the 14 questions, we coded it as 1, indicating that they experienced domestic violence during COVID-19.
Anxiety
The dependent variable, anxiety during COVID-19, was identified by employing the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) (Spitzer et al., 2006). The GAD-7 is a validated and reliable measurement and has been widely used to measure anxiety during the pandemic (Kahlon et al., 2021). Participants were asked the following questions on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 4 (nearly every day) over the past 2 weeks: “feeling nervous, anxious or on edge,” “not being able to stop or control worrying,” “worrying too much about different things,” “trouble relaxing,” “being so restless that it’s hard to sit still,” “become easily annoyed or irritable,” “feeling afraid as if something awful might happen.” Participants responded to the statements on a scale from 1–4, which was recoded from the initial scale of 0–3. Scores were then summed, with higher scores indicating higher anxiety (Spitzer et al., 2006) (α = .957).
Loneliness
Loneliness during COVID-19 was measured with three items by Hughes and colleagues (Hughes et al., 2004), which have been employed extensively to measure loneliness during COVID-19 (Petzold et al., 2020). Participants were asked the following on a scale from 1 (hardly) to 3 (often): “I feel as though I lack companionship during the current COVID-19 pandemic,” “I feel left out during the current COVID-19 pandemic,” and “I feel isolated from others during the current COVID-19 pandemic.” The scores were summed, with higher scores indicating higher loneliness (α = .869).
Resilience
Resilience during COVID-19 was identified by six items from the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) (Smith et al., 2008). The BRS is a valid scale and has been used extensively to assess resilience during the COVID-19 (De Pue et al., 2021; Tsibidaki, 2021). Participants were asked the following questions on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree): “I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times,” “I have a hard time making it through stressful life events,” “It does not take me long to recover from a stressful event,” “It is hard for me to snap back when something bad happens,” “I usually come through difficult times with little trouble,” and “I tend to take a long time to get over setbacks in my life.” After reverse coding of the negative questions, the scores were summed, with higher scores indicating higher resilience (α = 0.891).
Covariates
Based on previous studies, covariates for the current study were perceived physical health status, economic status, levels of education, gender, and marital status. Studies have shown that perceived health status has significant associations with resilience (Yoon & Choi, 2022), domestic violence (Easton & Kong, 2021; Tobiasz-Adamczyk et al., 2014) and adverse mental health outcomes among older adults (Kong & Easton, 2019; Yoon et al., 2020). Perceived physical health during COVID-19 was measured on a six-point Likert scale from very poor (1) to excellent (6). Although experiences of violence have a serious impact on both older men and women (Easton & Kong, 2021; Yoon et al., 2022), gender differences have been identified in the rates of domestic violence, loneliness (Santos et al., 2020; Tobiasz-Adamczyk et al., 2014), and mental health outcomes (Kong & Easton, 2019; Yoon et al., 2020). Gender was assessed with a binary question and responses were coded as male (0) and female (1). Marital status has been associated with significant relationships with loneliness, resilience, and anxiety among older adults (Rokach et al., 2002; Yoon & Choi, 2022). In addition, older adults living alone or widowed reported higher levels of domestic violence. Victims often reported that their sons or spouses were the main perpetrators (Tobiasz-Adamczyk et al., 2014). Marital status was coded as married (1) and unmarried (0). Yoon and Choi (2022) found that economic status has significant relationships with mental health such as loneliness, anxiety, and depression among older adults, including abused older adults, before (Yoon et al., 2022) and during COVID-19 (Yoon & Choi, 2022). Annual household income was assessed from under $5000 (1) to over $100,000 (20). Some research has also reported that education has negative associations with mental health outcomes (Easton & Kong, 2021; Yoon et al., 2022); however, other research has identified a positive (Yoon et al., 2020) or no relationship among older adults with experiences of abuse (Kong & Easton, 2019). Education was measured from less than high school (1) to a master’s degree or higher (5).
Data Analysis
Missing Values
SPSS 27 was used to analyze patterns of missing values. The total missing values in this sample were less than 1%. To impute the missing values, we used a Maximum Likelihood estimation (Enders, 2010).
Data Investigation
A path analysis with Mplus 8.8 was used to fit the path model and examine the direct and indirect effects of domestic violence on mental health (Klem, 1995). The fit of the hypothesized path model was evaluated by employing the chi square value (X2), the comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) (Hu & Bentler, 1999). For both the direct and indirect effects, 95% confidence intervals were estimated by employing bootstrapping (a bootstrap sample of 1000 was specified). All reported results were standardized estimates.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Demographic Characteristics and Study Variables (N = 522).
Hypothesis Testing
Standardized Direct and Indirect Effects (N = 522).
Notes. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
CI = confidence interval. For indirect effects, 95% confidence intervals were estimated using bootstrapping (a bootstrap sample of 1000 was specified). DV = domestic violence.
Research model. Note. Straight thin arrows are significant direct positive relationships, thin dot arrows are significant direct negative relationships, and thick arrows are significant indirect effects.
Direct Effects
The rate for any domestic violence victimization was 10.2% in the study sample. The experience of domestic violence was positively associated with loneliness (β = .249, SE = .044, p < .01, 95% CI [.162, .335]) and anxiety (β = .106, SE = .045, p < .05, 95% CI [.018, .194]). Therefore, the findings supported Hypothesis 1 indicating that the experience of domestic violence was positively associated with loneliness and anxiety. Hypothesis 2 was also supported showing that the experience of domestic violence was negatively associated with resilience (β = −.088, SE = .040, p < .05, 95% CI [-.168, −.009]). Additionally, resilience was negatively associated with anxiety (β = −.377, SE = .039, p < .001, 95% CI [−.454, −.300]), whereas loneliness was positively associated with anxiety (β = .281, SE = .050, p < .001, 95% CI [.183, .379]). In addition, loneliness was negatively associated with resilience (β = −.361, SE = .040, p < .001, 95% CI [−.440, −.283]), and income, gender, and education were not significantly associated with anxiety among older adults.
Indirect Effects
Hypothesis 3 was supported. The experience of domestic violence was associated with anxiety through loneliness (β = .070, SE = .018, p < .001, 95% CI [.035, .104]), and resilience, respectively (β = .033, SE = .016, p < .05, 95% CI [.003, .064]). In addition, the experience of domestic violence was associated with anxiety through loneliness and resilience sequentially (β = .034, SE = .008, p < .001, 95% CI [.019, .049]). Additionally, loneliness was associated with anxiety through resilience (β = .136, SE = .021, p < .001, 95% CI [.095, .178]).
Discussion
The purposes of the current study were to examine the impact of domestic violence on the mental health of older adults in the U.S. during COVID-19 and to investigate resilience as a protective factor between the experience of domestic violence and the negative mental health outcome. The results support the stress process model (Pearlin & Bierman, 2013; Pearlin et al., 1981). The first key finding is that the rate of domestic violence among older adults in the U.S. during the pandemic was about 10.2%. The rate was slightly lower than a previous study that found that 11% of older women in the U.S. experienced domestic violence before the pandemic (Mouton et al., 2010). The rate in our study was also lower than in studies on younger women during the pandemic (i.e., average age in their early 40 s) (Akel et al., 2022; Maji et al., 2022). Additionally, Yoon et al. (2022) reported spousal/partner physical violence at 10% for older women and 3% for older men before the pandemic. Although the participants, survey methods, and rates differed slightly, all the studies showed that domestic violence among older adults was relatively consistent before and during the pandemic.
Reducing Anxiety and Loneliness
The experience of domestic violence during the pandemic was significantly associated with higher levels of anxiety for victims than for their counterparts who had never experienced domestic violence among the study population (t = 5.649, p < .001). Similar results have been reported in other studies, indicating that female victims often experience higher anxiety (Anderson et al., 2012; Chandan et al., 2020; Fisher & Regan, 2006; Sediri et al., 2020). The current study extends these prior studies by showing that in U.S. during the pandemic, domestic violence was associated with anxiety both directly and indirectly among older adults, including both males and females.
Another finding related to anxiety among older adults in a previous study was that anxiety can decrease functional and cognitive abilities along with somatic symptoms among older adults (Yochim et al., 2013). However, numerous studies have shown that exercise and physical activity can improve mental health status such as anxiety along with physical health and enhanced cognitive ability, appropriate coping strategies, self-esteem, and social support (An et al., 2020; Callow et al., 2020; Colcombe & Kramer, 2003; Hwang et al., 2019; Lara et al., 2021; Wilkins et al., 2021; Windle et al., 2010). Exercise and physical activity may also boost resilience, a protective factor against anxiety, among vulnerable older adults, including violence and traumatic experiences for both men and women, even during the pandemic (An et al., 2020; Callow et al., 2020; Colcombe & Kramer, 2003; Hwang et al., 2019; Lara et al., 2021; Wilkins et al., 2021; Windle et al., 2010; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Healthcare professionals should develop programs including tailored exercise programs and provide resources for older victims for both groups and individuals in both online and offline formats based on their preferences (Crone & Guy, 2008). Additionally, older victims tend to not report victimization; thus, healthcare professionals should screen for domestic violence when their clients suffer from poor physical and mental health conditions, especially if they suffer from high levels of anxiety/depression and loneliness (Fisher & Regan, 2006; Tobiasz-Adamczyk et al., 2014). In addition, it is necessary to increase public awareness of domestic violence in later life and to inform older adults about appropriate resources and education programs, including brochures, presentations at senior centers and community centers, and public campaigns (Fisher et al., 2003; Fisher & Regan, 2006; Yoon & Cummings, 2019).
The current study also found that the experience of domestic violence was greatly associated with higher levels of loneliness. Loneliness among the survivors of domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic was significantly higher than among older adults who had not experienced domestic violence during the pandemic (t = 6.216, p < .001). This finding is consistent with previous research showing that victims of domestic violence tend to have significantly higher loneliness than their counterparts (Lauder et al., 2004; Rokach et al., 2007).
Although victims were more vulnerable to loneliness during COVID-19, loneliness of domestic violence survivors tended to be neglected during this challenging time (Goodman & Epstein, 2022). Given the detrimental impact of loneliness on older victims’ physical, cognitive, and mental health (Chen, 2020; Goodman & Epstein, 2022; Lee et al., 2020; Lim et al., 2020), alleviating loneliness among victims is crucial through efforts to foster meaningful social connectedness. Health care professionals, trained volunteers, and faith-based agencies may provide social connections through regular virtual and/or in-person health screening, tele-checks, in-person visits, and safe spaces online and offline where lonely people can interact comfortably and seek timely access to resources (Bar-Tur et al., 2021; Goh et al., 2020; Masi et al., 2011; Whitehead & Torossian, 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Social connectedness with reliable people may enhance positive feelings, provide emotional support, and reduce the risk of domestic violence victimization among older adults (Chang & Levy, 2021; Goodman & Epstein, 2022; Igarashi et al., 2021; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Such measures may also boost resilience, which is a significant protective factor against negative mental health outcomes after an abusive experience.
Strengthening Resilience
An important finding of this study is that resilience worked as an intervening variable between the experience of domestic violence and anxiety. This result is consistent with previous research showing that strengthening positive emotions, fostering inner power, and developing appropriate coping strategies foster resilience among older adults (Goodman & Epstein, 2022; Yoon & Choi, 2022; Yoon & Cummings, 2019). A similar result was reported in a previous study, indicating that resilience can mediate domestic violence and anxiety among low-income women (Williams & Mickelson, 2004). The present study confirms that resilience acted as a mediator between domestic violence and anxiety regardless of income or gender among the older adults. Both older men and women who had experienced domestic violence benefited from the protective factor of resilience against anxiety.
Resilience also weakened the effect of domestic violence victimization and loneliness on anxiety. This result is consistent with a previous study showing that resilience acted as a protective factor between loneliness and mental health problems such as anxiety or vulnerability among older adults (Gerino et al., 2017; Yoon & Choi, 2022; Zhao & Si, 2021). The present study adds to previous studies by showing that the experience of domestic violence was indirectly associated with anxiety through loneliness and resilience during the pandemic. The impact of resilience as a protective factor against anxiety was greater than the impact of loneliness as a risk factor for anxiety among the older adults. The experience of domestic abuse among older populations may significantly increase loneliness and anxiety during challenging times; however, resilience may reduce negative mental health outcomes as a protective factor. To strengthen resilience at an individual level, it may be helpful for older populations to add meaningful activities to their daily lives so they stay busy by promoting and participating in enjoyable hobbies such as cooking, singing, dancing, gardening, journaling, drawing, and knitting, even during health-challenging times (Igarashi et al., 2021; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Maintaining these hobbies may promote positive emotions that can strengthen resilience. In particular, older adults can tap into their inner strength to overcome negative feeling from daily stressors and stressful life events. (Igarashi et al., 2021; Ong et al., 2006; Yoon & Choi, 2022; Yoon & Cummings, 2019). One way to bolster resilience is social support, which has been reported as a predictor of resilience among older adults (PeConga et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022; Yoon & Cummings, 2019; Yoon et al., 2020, 2022). Social support from worship, spiritual leaders, and people in faith-based communities may help older victims find comfort in their values and form trusting relationships (Anderson et al., 2012; Whitehead & Torossian, 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Healthcare practitioners can also play a vital role in building up resilience for older victims. They can serve as professional conduits for virtual and in-person services, such as offering regular health screenings and accessible counseling services (Goh et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). In addition, they can connect survivors to resources, including domestic violence shelters, crisis hot lines, and community and governmental financial support (Goh et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Furthermore, practitioners can promote educational programs that offer training in communication and coping strategies for older adults and their family members (Anderson et al., 2012; Chan et al., 2022; Chang & Levy, 2021; Goh et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). Strengthening social support, meaningful social connectedness, and tightening safety nets at the individual, family, community and societal levels may increase resilience, strengthen inner power, and reduce loneliness and anxiety among vulnerable older populations during challenging times (Yoon & Choi, 2022; Yoon & Cummings, 2019).
Limitations and Strengths
Despite the important findings of this study, there are limitations that should be addressed in future studies. We used a binary question to measure domestic violence, which does not reveal the magnitude or duration of the violence. Although domestic violence has serious effects on victims’ mental and physical health regardless of the duration and victims’ age (Stöckl et al., 2012; Yoon et al., 2022), people may experience different types and levels of abuse (Waltermaurer, 2005; Yoon et al., 2022). To investigate the impacts of domestic abuse more precisely, more detailed measurements are needed (Yoon et al., 2022). Moreover, we collected data using convenience sampling via an online survey during COVID-19. Some older adults may not have internet accessibility, which makes it difficult to generalize the results. We also did not ask about the relationship between the victims and their abusers (i.e., whether the abuse came from a partner/spouse, or from another family member or someone in the home). The impact of violence on mental health may be different depending on the depth of the relationship between the abuser and victim. For future research, examining the relationship between the abuser and victim would add nuance to our understanding of the impact of domestic abuse and protective factors among older adults. Lastly, the current study investigated older adults who were aged 51 and older. Although resilience and the rate of domestic violence were not significantly different between the young older group (ages 51–65) and the oldest old group (ages 65 and older) in this study, there may be different impacts on domestic violence and protective factors (Yoon et al., 2022). Future research should investigate the effects further based on the age group to provide deeper insights about the negative mental health outcomes and protective factors after experiencing domestic abuse.
The present study, however, makes several important contributions. To date, most research on domestic violence during the pandemic has investigated women in general or younger generations (Maji et al., 2022; Moraes et al., 2020; Rashidi Fakari et al., 2022; Usher et al., 2021). The current study added the experiences of domestic violence among older men and women, including the mental health impacts, and the benefits of resilience directly and indirectly. This study also found that the experience of domestic violence had indirect effects on anxiety through loneliness and resilience. This result supports the stress process model in that the experience of domestic violence as a stressor was associated with anxiety, negative mental health outcomes, and resilience as an intervening variable, which reduced negative mental health outcomes (Pearlin et al., 1981). In addition, the data we used was not from police or other institutional records of abuse but from a more immediate source—participants’ own online responses to the survey during the pandemic. Thus, this study may give researchers and policymakers a better sense of the prevalence of domestic violence among older adults, who may hesitate to report their experiences through official channels (Piquero et al., 2021). In addition, this study builds on previous research examining resilience among older adults as a protective factor against negative mental health outcomes during the pandemic (Minahan et al., 2021; PeConga et al., 2020; Yoon & Choi, 2022). In particular, the results provide insights into how resilience works in the context of domestic violence during the challenging time.
Conclusion
The current study found that the experience of domestic violence heightened loneliness and anxiety among older adults in the U.S. during the pandemic. It also identified influences of resilience against negative psychological outcomes among the older adults. Tailored interventions at multi-levels for older survivors to increase resilience may help reduce adverse mental health outcomes.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was partially supported by internal funding from the Division of Social Work at the University of Wyoming.
