Complicit or Social Conditioning? Analyzing Women's Antifeminist Stances Across Cultures

The Core of Patriarchy: Upholding Male Hegemony and Privilege

The synthesis of the literature revealed that patriarchy upholds male privilege and exhibits hostility toward any attempts to disrupt men's domination, oppression, or criminal acts against women. This lies at the heart of the backlash against feminism: some antifeminists argue that the first, second, and third feminist waves have demeaned and oppressed traditional femininity, which they view as the sanctified, though subjugated, tradition of womanhood, while the fourth wave is especially vilified, described as a male-hating ideology aimed at promoting female superiority (Sykes & Hopner, 2024).

To preserve male dominance, patriarchal societies promote essentialism, which emphasizes fixed physiological and psychological differences between the sexes (Wan, 2024). This view leads some women to believe that such differences are biologically determined and immune to social or cultural influence (De Simone & Priola, 2022). Within this framework, gender roles are strictly enforced wherein men and women are perceived as having distinct, nonoverlapping functions. Women should embody traditional feminine virtues and serve primarily as wives and mothers, with their “rightful” place portrayed as within the home (Zhang et al., 2026). This reinforces their subordination to male authority and sustains the belief that men are inherently different from, and thus entitled to dominate, women (Wan, 2024). Similarly, the LGBTQ+ community is perceived as a threat to the patriarchal order, as it challenges binary gender norms and traditional family structures that underpin patriarchal ideology (Wan, 2024).

Anti-Feminism and Patriarchal Propaganda

The synthesis of literature showed that much antifeminist sentiment among women can be traced to pervasive patriarchal propaganda embedded in most societies. Long-standing religious and cultural ideologies have shaped patriarchal systems (Martinez, 2022; Norocel, 2018) that grant men control over dominant discourses, allowing them to define virtue and vice (Wan, 2024), impose restrictions on women (Camargo-Fernández & Polo-Artal, 2024), legitimize male authority, and expect women to submit to male leadership, endure oppression (Darakchi, 2019), and shoulder family responsibilities (De Simone & Priola, 2022).

With technological advancement, patriarchal authorities have adapted their messaging for mass dissemination, using traditional and digital media (Orgad & De Benedictis, 2015) to reinforce gender hierarchies and spread gender-biased narratives (Bauer, 2024). For example, during the 2011 economic downturn, when many British women were forced out of the labor market due to rising childcare costs, 41% of media coverage framed this exclusion positively, as a return to traditional family values. Women were encouraged to embrace roles as stay-at-home mothers, emphasizing identity and “choice” while obscuring the political, economic, and social conditions that shaped their retreat into the domestic sphere (Orgad & De Benedictis, 2015).

Social media is also used to resist and reframe feminist initiatives (Norocel, 2018). Patriarchal narratives often appear cloaked in moral virtue and tradition, fronted by conservative female figures. For example, Brazilian Minister of women, families and human right, Damares Alves used gender discourse alongside religious institutions, conservative groups, and the media to manufacture social “truths” and expand political influence (Martinez, 2022). These efforts stigmatize feminism as false and radical (Pustulka, 2024), promote ideals that reduce women to “breeding machines” (Kajta, 2022), and accuse feminists of hostility toward marriage, digital activism, and family values (Procope Bell, 2024; Wang & Chang, 2023).

Patriarchy's Moral Compass

The literature synthesis highlighted that, through patriarchal propaganda, “femininity” is celebrated as the ideal, portrayed as the “average” or “real” woman, the “feminine” archetype to which women are expected to conform (Barrett Meyering, 2016). In contrast, women who emulate men are viewed negatively, associated with difficulties in marriage, and deemed undeserving of care (Procope Bell, 2024). The notion of the “natural family” (Camargo-Fernández & Polo-Artal, 2024, p. 37) is staunchly defended, with marriage and motherhood upheld as pillars of social cohesion and moral righteousness (Leimgruber, 2020). Alongside male privilege, these ideals sustain patriarchal moral order.

Within this framework, feminism is vilified as a source of moral decline (Bauer, 2024). Feminists are depicted as selfish women who deprived others of femininity and maternal roles, inventing “unreal (problems), such as gender inequality” (Kajta, 2022, p. 18) and threatening religious norms and traditional family structures (Maryani et al., 2021). They are labeled as supporters of abortion and LGBTQ+ rights, overly sensitive, and opposers of men, while patriarchal society frames these portrayals negatively to stigmatize feminism.

Meanwhile, oppressive practices such as chastity and widow suicide are encouraged (Anagol, 2013), domestic violence is downplayed (Darakchi, 2019; Zaatut & Haj-Yahia, 2016), and sexual violence committed by men against women is reframed to portray men, especially white heterosexual men, as the true victims of gender oppression (Rentschler, 2022).

“Sacred” Motherhood?

Like men, antifeminist women adopt an “embryo-centered” stance (Avanza, 2020, p. 12), opposing abortion and denying women's bodily autonomy (Schreiber, 2002). They argue that women should “accept being enslaved for the perpetuation of the species,” since “women were the only ones responsible for the creation of life” (Runcan, 2024, p. 233). In their view, feminism distracts women from their “true” responsibilities, marriage and motherhood, thus destabilizing families and society (Blais & Dupuis-Déri, 2022; Faraut, 2003). As a result, “women were … responsible for the steep decline of the Humanist ethos, either by being careless or by being conceited” (Runcan, 2024, p. 233). Education, they insist, should enhance maternal duties, not support professional ambitions (Faraut, 2003), since personal advancement allegedly undermines women's sacred God-given maternal role (Camargo-Fernández & Polo-Artal, 2024).

Ironically, nonmarital childbirth, despite its benefits for population growth and women's reproductive rights, is condemned as immoral (Wan, 2024) for allegedly threatening male interests and traditional family values (Schreiber, 2002), revealing antifeminists’ true aim of upholding a men-centered, rather than embryo-centered, ideology to preserve male privilege.

Submission to Men

Antifeminist women believe their greatest asset is not intellect or career success but traditional femininity and submission to men (Procope Bell, 2024). Some contend that widows should not remarry, with self-immolation as the only honorable response to a husband's death (Anagol, 2013). Victims of domestic violence may reject protection, defending a “natural” religious order in which men lead and women follow, even at the cost of safety (Darakchi, 2019). Political participation is condemned since elections allegedly strip women of gender identity (Faraut, 2003), fostering “ambitious” moral decay (Sorrentino & Augoustinos, 2016) and eroding virtues expressed through family and charity, where women support men (Anagol, 2013). Leadership roles, especially the presidency, are seen as inappropriate for women, whose “essence” lies in following male guidance (Darakchi, 2019; Tadros, 2021).

Whose Consent Counts? Male “Victims” Versus Female “Immorality.”

The literature shows that certain female commentators dismiss “rape culture” as a feminist delusion, claiming it an exaggerated issue caused by misunderstandings and drunken behavior. They argue that feminists weaponize the term to suppress free speech and open discourse more broadly, labeling “social justice” an oppressive ideology. According to this absurd perspective, women can avoid assault by better managing their own behavior, thereby shifting the blame onto victims and recasting men as the true victims, the victims of feminism (Rentschler, 2022). Moreover, antifeminists accuse women of perpetuating an unhealthy “victimhood culture” around sexual harassment, portraying it as evidence of moral weakness that undermines social norms and institutions (Gianoncelli, 2022).

Interestingly, however, attempts to restore sexual freedom for women, such as the Sexual Violence Eradication Bill (RUU PKS) in Indonesia, have been vehemently opposed by antifeminist women's organizations. In their view, women's potential engagement in adultery, prostitution, and homosexuality (Sya'rani, 2023) undoubtedly poses major threats to society, apparently far greater than sexual and domestic violence perpetrated by men. Empirical evidence consistently shows that gender-based violence remains a serious social problem in many countries, including Indonesia, where women continue to face significant risks of domestic and public violence.

Internalized Patriarchy and Blind “Neutrality.”

Across patriarchal contexts, which vary in form, intensity, and institutional expression, antifeminist sentiment often thrives where gender inequality is normalized and naturalized (Orgad & De Benedictis, 2015). Women, particularly those exposed to systemic threats (Yeung et al., 2014) or living in countries experiencing democratic backsliding, are socialized to internalize antifeminist ideologies (Martinez, 2022), often passively accepting the status quo (Yoder et al., 2012) and becoming desensitized to systemic injustice (Buschman & Lenart, 1996). Many report no personal experience of gender-based discrimination (Crowley, 2009), suggesting a disconnection between systemic oppression and the perceptions of women conditioned by patriarchal norms.

This acquiescence often appears as blind neutrality, with some women positioning themselves as mediators between genders (Crowley, 2009), conflating equality with equity, and mistakenly framing their stance as a defense of justice. Individuals with high social dominance orientation and authoritarian tendencies are especially likely to endorse antifeminist views, particularly when they distrust governmental institutions (Beyer et al., 2018).

Economic and Political Incentives

Governments with patriarchal orientations often implement policies that encourage women to adopt traditional roles under the guise of voluntariness. For example, state-sponsored family benefits like Poland's “Family 500+” program, which provides financial assistance to families, directly reward women who support conservative gender norms, effectively incentivizing them to remain in traditional domestic roles (Leimgruber, 2020).

Conservative political parties also recruit women to bolster antifeminist messaging. These parties leverage female voices by having women publicly oppose feminist ideas (Martinez, 2022; Schreiber, 2002), knowing such statements from high-status women are often more persuasive and publicly accepted (Beyer et al., 2018). Some even adopt feminist rhetoric to frame nationalist or anti-immigration policies, masking conservative agendas in a seemingly progressive guise (Camargo-Fernández & Polo-Artal, 2024).

Female politicians may also embrace antifeminist positions for strategic purposes. Facing potential backlash or declining approval, some distance themselves from feminist issues to secure electoral support (Sorrentino & Augoustinos, 2016). Although gaining votes from antifeminists may cost them support from feminist women, the stance reflects calculated trade-offs (Sorrentino & Augoustinos, 2016). Participation in antifeminist organizations can also create an illusion of agency. Some women report believing they can challenge internal misogyny and contribute to leadership despite contrary views from male colleagues (Crowley, 2009).

This trade-off becomes a mutually reinforcing dynamic: the female politician gains support from antifeminist voters, while the party advances its patriarchal agenda under the banner of women's endorsement, thereby making its policies more acceptable (Leimgruber, 2020).

Marriage

Marriage can alter women's allegiances, with some shifting their views to align with their husband’s interests. For instance, women closely connected to divorced men paying alimony may view feminist-backed legal gains for ex-wives as direct threats to the rights of the men they care about (Crowley, 2009), and to their own future interests should they marry these men. This perceived “betrayal” often drives them to turn against feminist causes (Iker, 2023). Some women adopt antifeminist positions to preserve perceived forms of security and social approval within patriarchal systems (Blais & Dupuis-Déri, 2022), including the socially valued position of staying at home, managing household labor, caring for children, and being economically supported by men. In these accounts, patriarchy is presented as simplifying family roles, reducing marital conflict, relieving the pressures associated with the “superwoman complex,” offering emotional security, and enabling women to feel valued through their husbands’ attention. It is also seen as lowering decision-making burdens and strengthening marital intimacy (Snyder-Hall, 2008, p. 573). In China, the tradition of bride price, despite objectifying women, continues to attract those seeking financial benefit, while the patriarchal “Dishu” system historically enabled legal wives to exploit concubines and their children (Wan, 2024).

The Myth of “Choice.”

Female antifeminists argue that focusing on gender equity overlooks women's distinct experiences and needs (Snyder-Hall, 2008), or that feminism imposes new forms of control, such as criticizing married women, which replicates patriarchal oppression and fractures female solidarity (Wang & Chang, 2023). Having long tolerated patriarchal constraints, these women ironically resist similar expectations when imposed by feminists (Burkinshaw & White, 2020). Take the group identifying as “postfeminists” for example; postfeminism focuses on individual cases while neglecting the broader context, falsely claiming the battle for gender equality has already been won (Buschman & Lenart, 1996; Darakchi, 2019). Its proponents accept patriarchal stereotypes, view women as unsuitable for grand narratives, and place excessive faith in individual choices (Jarvis & Eddington, 2021). They assert that women's choices, whether becoming housewives or pursuing careers, are equally valid forms of empowerment (Sykes & Hopner, 2024). However, during the 2011 U.K. economic crisis, despite making the same choices, middle-class stay-at-home mothers were praised for embodying “family-first values,” while working-class mothers who withdrew from the labor force faced public shaming (Orgad & De Benedictis, 2015). This disparity exposed the classist foundations of patriarchal narrative, revealing how it co-opts feminist language to reinforce hierarchies that restrict meaningful autonomy for most women.

The Cost of Feminism

Compared to the perceived benefits of opposing feminism, endorsing feminist ideals often appears less appealing. Feminist engagement requires confronting systemic oppression, which carries emotional and social costs. For instance, some women subjected to domestic violence choose to endure their circumstances, believing they cannot achieve independent living and prioritizing their children's welfare over personal safety (Darakchi, 2019).

Conservatives often present themselves as representing the “mainstream” (Schreiber, 2002, p. 336), while marginalizing those who deviate from traditional norms (Crowley, 2009). In such contexts, feminism becomes an easy target (Nelson et al., 1997), and feminists are stereotyped as deserving of gender-based discrimination (Yeung et al., 2014). Even women inclined toward feminist awakening often remain silent, fearing backlash and remaining reluctant to speak openly (Linden, 2015). The awakening process itself entails psychological discomfort (Yoder et al., 2012).

Research shows that egalitarian beliefs are often more socially acceptable when women avoid identifying as feminists. Activism may gain broader legitimacy when endorsed by individuals who conform to dominant gender and social norms, rather than by groups labeled extreme or marginalized, such as feminists or LGBTQ+ communities. However, this strategic dependence on socially conforming figures risks reproducing the same hierarchies that feminist politics seeks to challenge. When framed as a promotion of freedom or equality, activism is less likely to be seen as a threat to the social order and may gain broader support (Yeung et al., 2014, p. 7).

Therefore, for women facing intersecting forms of discrimination, even when they recognize gender-related problems, if feminism seems inadequate in addressing their most urgent concerns, some seek alternatives. This mirrors how some black women embrace traditional domestic roles as a means of navigating capitalism, white supremacy, and patriarchy (Procope Bell, 2024).

Subjective Norms and Manufacturing Belonging

Women's antifeminist behaviors are significantly shaped by subjective norms, especially through observing the endorsement of antifeminist attitudes by important social referents and the practice of antifeminism by others (Blais & Dupuis-Déri, 2022). For example, research reveals that women may face criticism from fathers, brothers, or husbands for defying gender norms such as cutting their hair short or refusing to shave, which can pressure them into adopting antifeminist views (Blais & Dupuis-Déri, 2022). Similarly, the wives of football players in Israeli society, who align with right-wing political subcultures, display stronger tendencies toward authoritarianism, antifeminism, and conservative political attitudes (Rubinstein & Lansisky, 2013). Female politicians in right-wing parties and members of antifeminist organizations often report a sense of belonging and emotional fulfillment within these groups, feelings they do not find in feminist organizations, even though these groups prioritize men's rights over women's (Iker, 2023).

Contemporary developments, especially social media expansion, have lowered barriers for women to widely disseminate antifeminist views, often aligning these narratives with economic interests (Bauer, 2024). Antifeminist organizations support such expressions, offering symbolic rewards that make women feel their influence is growing, which motivates continued support for patriarchal structures (Leimgruber, 2020). Consequently, the actions of antifeminists who share personal stories to build emotional resonance and critique feminism are particularly concerning. By becoming influential referents, they legitimize antifeminist narratives and subtly reinforce regressive gender norms through everyday interactions, thereby entrenching systemic inequalities (Bauer, 2024).

Co-opting Dissent: Women as Cultural Enforcers of Antifeminism

Antifeminist women do not merely internalize traditional values, they actively enforce them in public and digital spaces. Bauer (2024) shows how female influencers use social media to spread emotionally resonant antifeminist messages. They present themselves as defenders of tradition and family, critiquing feminism as aggressive, immoral, or unfeminine. These narratives persuade by framing antifeminism as protective rather than regressive. Using intimate language and affective storytelling, they attract loyal audiences who view them as moral guides, not ideological agents.

Martinez (2022) illustrates how figures like Damares Alves in the Brazilian context use emotional language and spiritual symbolism to present antifeminist messaging as morally urgent. Collaborating with religious and conservative institutions, Alves amplifies claims that feminism causes moral decay and cultural confusion. Her status as a woman and public official lends credibility to arguments that might seem sexist from men, making her influence particularly effective.

Kajta (2022) documents how antifeminist rhetoric casts women as national mothers and guardians of morality. These roles offer emotional meaning, despite limiting power. Feminists are seen as dangerous for destabilizing values that hold society together. Antifeminist women become protectors of a symbolic order that morally centers them, even as it excludes them from political influence.

This affective alignment with conservative values draws on a broader sense of cultural crisis. Many antifeminist women invoke nostalgia for a past seen as more orderly and feminine. Their activism, framed as a return to dignity, purity, and family, gains them recognition, symbolic status, and public authority, reinforcing a deeply gendered politics of belonging.